Etymology and Morphology

Etymology is obscure and follows exegetical pathways set by Aristotle and Stoics. In the first case (as empty space) Χάος derives from χώρα [n.] 'place', in the case of Stoics suggested etymology relates to χέεσθαι [v.] 'pour' and χύσις, [n.] 'pouring out'.

χάος < *χάϝος beside χαῦνος, like ἔρεβος to ἐρεμνός < *ἐρεβνός. Beeks’ suggestion deriving Χάος from χαῦνος with the basic meaning related to lack (‘holes’, ‘loose’) seems to fit intrepretations of Strauss Clay (2003) and Mondi (1989). Χαῦνος is possible for χάος as an opposite side of existence. If χάος and χαῦνος are related then Χάος is also related to χάσκω , χάσμα, χανεῖν, χήμη , etc.

Beeks also suggests formal similarity to some Germanic and Baltic words meaning 'palate': OHG guomo, ON gómr [m.], etc. < IE * gheh2-mn- beside OHG goumo [m.] < PGm. * gauma(n)-, Lith. gomurỹs, etc.

Testimonies and Interpretation

Χάος is hardly to be found elsewhere in archaic hexameter than in Hesiod’s Theogony (116 ➚). It is also very few in later occurrences and contribute little to original, Hesiodic meaning of the term. What could be taken safely is its temporal primacy (Hölscher, 1953:399).

After proem Theogony tells the story of the beginning of all things and it starts with χάος. It is the neuter noun which has no epithets and no characteristics at line 116 ➚ when it is introduced. Jenny Strauss Clay takes it as a „featureless void” . The only epithet by which it is described in the entire work is ζοφερός, ‘dark’, ‘gloomy’, ‘murky’. Interestingly ζοφερός appears in different works to describe formless entities like water (Aristotle Mirabilia, 843a 25) and air (Chrysippus, 2.140.36; Plutarchus 1053f ➚; Sextus Empiricus, Adv. Math. 7.183.8). Hesiod in no place elaborates any further details about the character of the term.

Aristotle and Peripatetic tradition interpret Χάος as an 'empty space', 'room' and connects its etymology with χώρα.

Ἡσίοδος ὀρθῶς λέγειν ποιήσας πρῶτον τὸ χάος. λέγει γοῦν “πάντων μὲν πρώτιστα χάος γένετ', αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα γαῖ' εὐρύστερνος,” ὡς δέον πρῶτον ὑπάρξαι χώραν τοῖς οὖσι, διὰ τὸ νομίζειν, ὥσπερ οἱ πολλοί, πάντα εἶναί που καὶ ἐν τόπῳ. (Phys. 208b30)

This line is taken also by Sextus Empiricus in Pyrrh. Hyp. 3.121 and Adv. Math. 10.11–12. In Zeno, (frag. 103, Schol. Apoll. Rhod. I 498) and Cornutus, De nat.deor. we find suggestion to interpret Χάος as fire.

καὶ Ζήνων δὲ τὸ παρ' Ἡσιόδῳ χάος ὕδωρ εἶναί φησιν, οὗ συνιζάνοντος ἰλὺν γίνεσθαι, ἧς πηγνυμένης ἡ γῆ στερεμνιοῦται. τρίτον δὲ Ἔρωτα γεγονέναι καθ' Ἡσίοδον, ἵνα τὸ πῦρ παραστήσῃ· πυρωδέστερον γὰρ πάθος Ἔρως. (Zeno, fr.103, Schol. Apoll. Rhod. I 498).

This exegesis continues up to modern day. Some scholars interpret Χάος as empty space, yawnin gap (Cornford), chasm (Most, West) between Earth and Heaven and/or between Earth and Tartarus (Mazon, 1928:36; Cornford, 1912:66; West, 1966:192; Kirk and Raven, 1983:38).

Others are keen to materialize it into formless entities like mist, wind, or fog (Schoemann, 1868:84; Schwenn, 1934:107; Karl, 1967:17; Stokes, 1963:23)

Closer look at the Theogony seems to unfold it as an infernal region: pit or abyss. Word χάσμα used in Th. 740–743 ➚) seems to confirm it:

χάσμα μέγ', οὐδέ κε πάντα τελεσφόρον εἰς ἐνιαυτὸν
οὖδας ἵκοιτ', εἰ πρῶτα πυλέων ἔντοσθε γένοιτο,
ἀλλά κεν ἔνθα καὶ ἔνθα φέροι πρὸ θύελλα θυέλλης
ἀργαλέη· δεινὸν δὲ καὶ ἀθανάτοισι θεοῖσι.

It is a great gulf, and if once a man were within the gates, he would not reach the floor until a whole year had reached its end, but cruel blast upon blast would carry him this way and that. And this marvel is awful even to the deathless gods.

Lines that proceed this fragment (736–739 ➚) repeats verbatim in 807–810 ➚ and are followed in 814 ➚ which has been taken by many scholars (West, Solmsen, Hölscher) as possible identification of χάσμα and χάος. However, as Mondi (Mondi 1989:9) points, out these words cannot be fully taken as such because of different level of generality: while χάος is one and only, χάσματα are many.

Hesiod’s Χάος is foremost a cosmological element and thus plays a significant role in the structure of the universe. It seems that the safest interpretation is to take it as referring to the nether world and powers residing there. Hesiod presents Χάος as superior to both, mortals and immortals. It seems to be confirmed by the whole genealogical line of Χάος, that includes entities like Night who bores obstacles such us Strife, Sleep (subordinates both mortals and immortals) and Old Age and Death (subordinates only mortals) who all resides in Erebos. It is in the lineage of Χάος via Night who introduces Death and Old Age that the differentiation between divinities and mortals are introduced. Thus the conflict (Strife) is made possible unlocking the hierarchy and possibility of worship, ritual and religiosity as such.

Νυκτὸς δ᾽ ἐρεβεννῆς οἰκία δεινὰ

Erebos where (…) houses of Night stand (Th. 744 ➚)

ἔνθα δὲ Νυκτὸς παῖδες ἐρεμνῆς οἰκί᾽ ἔχουσιν

(…) where the children of dark Night have their houses (Th.758 ➚)

After Χάος, Night inherits the ability to self–reproduce, thus what comes from Night could be understood as extension of the power of Χάος.

οὔ τινι κοιμηθεῖσα θεὰ τέκε Νὺξ ➚ ἐρεβεννή

the goddess murky Night, though she lay with none (Th. 214 ➚)

In Homer, in the scene Deception of Zeus (Il.14.225-355 ➚) we find Zeus obeyable and respectful towards the daughter of Χάος, Night, despite his anger directed at her son – Sleep.

Night is beyond mortal/immortal and holds the power to ‘subdue both gods and man’

εἰ μὴ Νὺξ ➚ δμήτειρα θεῶν ἐσάωσε καὶ ἀνδρῶν (Il. 14.259 ➚).

The transcending character of the lineage of Χάος and nether realm is mostly evident in Hesiodic Titanomachy where all forces allied with Zeus are related to the underworld. By freeing Cronus’ brothers from Tartarus, Zeus comes into possession of thunderbolt by which, he rules over mortals and immortals. Thunderbolt is described as coming from inside the Earth (Th. 500–506).

δῶκαν δὲ βροντὴν ἠδ᾽ αἰθαλόεντα κεραυνὸν καὶ στεροπήν: τὸ πρὶν δὲ πελώρη Γαῖα κεκεύθει: τοῖς πίσυνος θνητοῖσι καὶ ἀθανάτοισιν ἀνάσσει.

[Cronus’ brothers] gave him thunder and the glowing thunderbolt and lightning: for before that, huge Earth had hidden these. In them he trusts and rules over mortals and immortals.

Thunderbolt ➚ has a special feature: it is used remotely, and it provides Zeus with the power to overcome and preserve the obstacle at the same time. It is in Zeus ’ aristeia where this special feature of thunderbolt is manifested, as Solmsen observes:

No foes are slain in this battle, but the whole universe is shaken and feels the impact of Zeus ' tremendous exertions. (Solmsen, 1949:17)

Tartarus, location where Titans are imprisoned, is located along the vertical axis that traverses the whole universe of Theogony. It is said that it is far beneath the surface of Earth, on the side of χάεος ζοφεροῖο (Th. 720–725 ➚). The epithet ζοφεροῖο is hapax legomenon and is used by Hesiod exclusively for nether darkness (Th. 653 ➚, 658 ➚, 729 ➚). As said before it is the only context, and description, of Χάος present in Hesiod.

In lines 695–705 ➚ we are presented with the power of thunderbolt that disturbs the whole shape of the universe and thus reshapes the four realms of it: of Earth, sky, sea and underworld itself.

ἔζεε δὲ χθὼν πᾶσα καὶ Ὠκεανοῖο ῥέεθρα
πόντος τ᾽ ἀτρύγετος: τοὺς δ᾽ ἄμφεπε θερμὸς ἀυτμὴ
Τιτῆνας χθονίους, φλὸξ δ᾽ αἰθέρα δῖαν ἵκανεν
ἄσπετος, ὄσσε δ᾽ ἄμερδε καὶ ἰφθίμων περ ἐόντων
5αὐγὴ μαρμαίρουσα κεραυνοῦ τε στεροπῆς τε.
καῦμα δὲ θεσπέσιον κάτεχεν Χάος: εἴσατο δ᾽ ἄντα
ὀφθαλμοῖσιν ἰδεῖν ἠδ᾽ οὔασι ὄσσαν ἀκοῦσαι
αὔτως, ὡς εἰ Γαῖα καὶ Οὐρανὸς εὐρὺς ὕπερθε
πίλνατο: τοῖος γάρ κε μέγας ὑπὸ δοῦπος ὀρώρει
10τῆς μὲν ἐρειπομένης, τοῦ δ᾽ ὑψόθεν ἐξεριπόντος:
τόσσος δοῦπος ἔγεντο θεῶν ἔριδι ξυνιόντων.

All the land seethed, and Ocean's streams and the unfruitful sea. The hot vapor lapped round the Earthborn Titans: flame unspeakable rose to the bright upper air: the flashing glare of the thunderstone and lightning blinded their eyes for all that they were strong. [700] Astounding heat seized Χάος: and to see with eyes and to hear the sound with ears it seemed even as if Earth and wide Heaven above came together; for such a mighty crash would have arisen if Earth were being hurled to ruin, and Heaven from on high were hurling her down; [705] so great a crash was there while the gods were meeting together in Strife.

What is mostly important is the fact that the bare conflict which culminates in reshaping the universe and establishing Zeus ’ reign is made possible by Χάος’ granddaughter Strife, born by Night. In Works and Days Strife from Theogony duplicates itself and becomes good and bad Strife that has ability to fuel human progress and excellency.

As Sextus Epiricus (Adv. Math. 10.18–19) and Diogenes Laertius (10.1 ➚) recalls, the fourteen years old Epicurus whom after being told about Χάος by his teacher, asked about its nature. If everything – as Hesiod claims – comes from Χάος, then where Χάος itself comes from? Unfortunately Epicurus’ techear couldn’t satisfy curiosity of his pupil and replied that such knowledge belongs to the realm of the philosophers. By asking this very question, as we are told, Epicurus became initiated to philosophy and became a member of those who “know the thruth about things”.

καὶ τοῦτό φασιν ἔνιοι αἴτιον γεγονέναι Ἐπικούρῳ τῆς ἐπὶ τὸ φιλοσοφεῖν ὁρμῆς. κομιδῇ γὰρ μειρακίσκος ὢν ἤρετο τὸν ἐπαναγινώσκοντα αὐτῷ γραμματιστήν· “ἤτοι μὲν πρώτιστα χάος γένετ'”, ἐκ τίνος τὸ χάος ἐγένετο, εἴπερ πρῶτον ἐγένετο. Τούτου δὲ εἰπόντος μὴ ἑαυτοῦ ἔργον εἶναι τὰ τοιαῦτα διδάσκειν, ἀλλὰ τῶν καλουμένων φιλοσόφων, τοίνυν, ἔφησεν ὁ Ἐπίκουρος, ἐπ' ἐκείνους μοι βαδιστέον ἐστίν, εἴπερ αὐτοὶ τὴν τῶν ὄντων ἀλήθειαν ἴσασιν.

Until today, anyone who steps on the slippery ground of interpreting χάος inevitably finds herself inside the aporias of human thinking: between philosophy, myth and theology.