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                <title xml:lang="grc">Kalliereo</title>
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                <publisher><ref target="https://site.unibo.it/lares/">LARES Project</ref></publisher>
                <date when="2021"/>
                <idno type="filename">lexicon_kalliereo</idno>
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                <p>"Animal Sacrifice in Ancient Greece" database (<ref>http://www.sacrificium.filg.uj.edu.pl</ref>).</p>
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                <change when="2018-02-17" who="Przemysław Biernat">updated document contents</change>
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                    <p><w>καλλιερέω</w> kalliereo, v. abs.: procurare segni di accettazione del sacrificio da parte degli dei mentre lo si fa. trans.: fare un'offerta [acc.] accettata dagli dei, gradita agli dei.</p>                    
                </div>
                <div type="textpart" n="Etimologia_e_morfologia">
                    <head>Etimologia e morfologia</head>
                    <p>Un verbo composto, formato dall'espressione <w>καλὰ</w> <w>ἱερά</w>, 'belle offerte, scil. offerte gradite agli dei'. (Beekes 2010: 625). La forma kalli- invece di kali- è frequente nel composto, sebbene non abbia ricevuto una spiegazione soddisfacente (Chantraine 1968: 486, Beekes 2010: 627).</p>
                    <p>Tracce attestate sono due derivazioni dal verbo κ.: <w>καλλιέρησις</w>, 'acquisire un segno di accettazione dei sacrifici' (IG I2.98.23, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0634:chapter=10&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Onas. 10</ref>.26), e <w>καλλιέρημα</w>, "un sacrificio accettato dagli dei" (Hsch. s.v. καλλιέρημα, EM. 487.14).</p>                    
                </div>
                <div type="textpart" n="Certificati">
                    <head>Certificati</head>
                    <p>Significato e uso</p>
                    <p>Nell'uso assoluto (senza complementi) il significato del verbo κ. è sinonimo dell'espressione καλὰ τὰ ἱερὰ εἶναι / γίγνεσθαι (vedi uso intercambiabile in 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0001:speech=3:section=131&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">Aeschin. 3 131</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0067:exordium=54:section=1&amp;highlight=e%29kallierou%3Dmen">D. Prooema. 54.1</ref>). 
                        Così, non descrive l'atto di offrire il sacrificio (θύω), ma lo riassume indicando che fu accettato dagli dei (δέχομαι, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0311:book=2:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsas%2Ce%29kallie%2Frei">Plu. Domande. Conv. 632d</ref>).
                        Nell'uso transitivo (più raro), il verbo κ. denota l'offerta di un sacrificio (espresso da un complemento prossimale) e indica che il sacrificio è stato accettato dagli dei (o che è stato offerto con tale intenzione; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0073:speech=21:section=53&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">D. 21.53</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0228:text=Id.:poem=5&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">Theoc. 5.148</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0129%3Achapter%3D69%3Asection%3D4">Plu. Alex. 69,4</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0278:section=3&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frhsen">An Viti. 3</ref>; Greg.Naz. C. 726.13). Il metodo meglio attestato per sapere se gli dei accettavano il sacrificio era quello di ispezionare le viscere dell'animale sacrificato (cfr. <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0083:book=14:chapter=80&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">D.S. 14.80</ref>).</p>
                    <p>Il verbo κ. può verificarsi con la preposizione ὑπέρ, indicando il gruppo o l'impresa per la cui intenzione (o le cui intenzioni) viene fatto il sacrificio (hυπὲρ τε͂ς ἀποικίας, IG I3 46 (http://epigraphy.packhum.org/text/46?hs=417-425).9; ὑπὲρ τοῦ δήμου, <ref corresp="http://epigraphy.packhum.org/text/3226">IG II2 1006</ref>.26; 
                        ὑπὲρ τῆς (...) εὐδ[ο]ξίας τε καὶ σ[ω]τηρίας, IG II2 1224 (http://epigraphy.packhum.org /text/3439?hs=2853-2860). 13-14; ὑπὲρ τῆς ἡγεμονίας, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0278:section=3&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frhsen">Plu. An Viti. 3</ref>).</p>
                    <p>Nelle iscrizioni che commemorano l'offerta di sacrifici, i verbi κ. e θύω possono essere usati fianco a fianco in riferimento a un unico sacrificio, il che serve a sottolineare che il sacrificio non era solo offerto ma che era gradito agli dei, il che doveva essere importante dal punto di vista della comunità offerente (θύοντες καὶ καλλιεροῦντες, 
                        <ref corresp="http://epigraphy.packhum.org/text/3226">IG II2 1006</ref>.26; analogamente IG II2 1008, IG II2 1028, IG II2 1029, IG II2 1030, IG II2 1039, IG II2 1043, IG II2 1224 e altri; cfr. anche <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0233:book=32:chapter=15&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsas">Plb. 32.15</ref>).</p>
                    <p>Quando καλλιερεῖν?</p>
                    <p>L'ascrizione di un carattere semiotico al sacrificio si traduceva nel suo uso nel processo decisionale (vedi le osservazioni generali di Flower sulla divinazione, 2008: 74-76, Park 1963). 
                        Il più delle volte, il sacrificio veniva offerto per vedere se gli dei avrebbero dato il loro consenso o promesso il loro appoggio nell'impresa di cui il sacrificio accompagnava l'impresa (marcia delle truppe, inizio di una battaglia, fondazione di una colonia, iniziativa privata, ecc.) L'accettazione del sacrificio significava consenso/sostegno, il rifiuto del sacrificio significava mancanza di consenso/sostegno (cfr <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=6:chapter=76&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free">Hdt. 6.76</ref>).</p>
                    <p>La maggior parte delle testimonianze riguardanti l'interpretazione dei sacrifici proviene da descrizioni di guerra (cfr. Bradipo 2012), e da esse si evince che fare sacrifici all'epoca era un compromesso tra la necessità di prendere decisioni e la consapevolezza che in un'impresa così rischiosa come la guerra, si deve sapere di avere gli dei dalla propria parte (ἀνάγκη καλλιερεῖν, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0634:chapter=10&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Onas. 10</ref>.27). I comandanti hanno fatto dei sacrifici perché volevano sapere se era il momento giusto per arrotolare il campo, attraversare un fiume o attaccare le posizioni nemiche 
                        (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=6:chapter=76&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free">Hdt. 6.76</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=9:chapter=19&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free%2Ckallierhsa%2Fntwn">9.19</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=9:chapter=38&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free">9.38</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0201:book=5:chapter=4&amp;highlight=e%29kallierh%2Fsanto">X. An. 5.4</ref>.22, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0203:book=6:chapter=4&amp;highlight=e%29kekallierh%2Fkei">Cyr. 6.4</ref>.12, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=6:chapter=5&amp;highlight=e%29kekallie%2Frhto">Hel. 6.5</ref>.17; trascuratezza della procedura: <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0001:speech=3:section=131&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">Aeschin. 3.131</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0086:chapter=18&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsasin">Plu. Cam. 18</ref>.4). Se le perdite non avevano successo, i piani venivano cambiati (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=6:chapter=76&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free">Hdt. 6,76</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0083:book=14:chapter=80&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">D.S. 14.80</ref>) o un altro sacrificio veniva fatto il giorno dopo (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=9:chapter=93&amp;highlight=e%29kalliere%2Fonto">Hdt. 9,93</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0201:book=7:chapter=1&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frei">X. An. 7.1</ref>.40, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=3:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kekallierhkw%2Fs%2Ce%29kallierei%3Dto">Hel. 3.1</ref>.17; 
                        Contesto non militare: <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0209:text=Ways:chapter=6&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantas">X. Vect. 6</ref>). Il sacrificio inefficace può essere durato fino a diversi giorni.</p>
                    <p>A volte dalle fonti emerge l'immagine di un comandante che non aveva ricevuto un segno di favore dagli dei, ma era determinato a compiere l'azione prevista. Poi uccideva un altro animale, seguito da un altro, fino a quando il risultato era raggiunto. 
                        Un esempio di questo atteggiamento si trova nella descrizione della lotta in salita tra le truppe di Agesilao e Pharnabazos negli Ellenici (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=4:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kallierhsa%2Fmenos">X. Hel. 4.1</ref>.22): quando uno dei comandanti spartani viene a sapere dove sono accampati gli uomini di Pharnabazos, chiede a Agesilaos di assegnargli dei soldati e di permettergli di organizzare una gita; poi fa dei sacrifici e li interrompe solo verso sera, quando finalmente riesce a ricevere un segno di favore, 
                        Dopo di che chiama i soldati a marciare (cfr. anche: <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0203:book=1:chapter=5&amp;highlight=kallierhsa%2Fmenos">X. Cyr. 1,5</ref>.6; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0182:chapter=17&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frei">Plu. Arista. 17</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0080:chapter=17&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frei">Aem. 17</ref>; sacrificio continuo come, apparentemente, un tentativo di ribaltare le sorti della battaglia: 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=7:chapter=167&amp;highlight=e%29kalliere%2Feto">Hdt. 7.167</ref>; sacrificio continuo in un contesto non militare: <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=3:chapter=3&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantes">X. Hel. 3.3</ref>.4). 
                        Non sappiamo come i greci razionalizzassero tale comportamento per se stessi, ma è probabile che vedessero tali offerte come propiziatorie e il cambiamento di idea degli dei come un cedimento alla richiesta (cfr. Sloth 2012: 24). Per gli intellettuali greci, tale ragionamento può essere stato difficile da accettare perché avrebbe minato la perfezione morale degli dei. Secondo Onasandro, gli dei, accettando il sacrificio, indicavano al comandante il momento giusto per compiere una determinata azione.
                        Non si dovrebbe quindi fare nulla senza aver fatto il sacrificio in anticipo, e lo si dovrebbe ripetere lo stesso giorno (θύεσθαι δὲ τῆς αὐτῆς ἡμέρας πολλάκις) a patto che gli dei non lo accettino, perché iniziare un'azione troppo presto (senza l'approvazione degli dei) o troppo tardi (ricevere l'approvazione il giorno dopo) potrebbe rovinare l'intera impresa (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0634:chapter=10&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Onasander 10</ref>.27). 
                        In questo modo Onasandro evitava il sospetto che il sacrificio in guerra servisse a conquistare (comprare) il favore degli dei (l'opinione che gli dei possano essere comprati con i sacrifici fu criticata, tra l'altro, da Platone nello Stato - un dialogo. di Platone nello Stato, un dialogo al quale Onasandro avrebbe scritto un commento, vedi <ref corresp="http://www.stoa.org/sol-bin//search.pl?search_method=QUERY&amp;login=&amp;enlogin=&amp;searchstr=omicron,386&amp;field=adlerhw_gr&amp;db=REAL">Suda su 386</ref>).</p>
                    <p>Come καλλιερεῖν?</p>
                    <p>Probabilmente l'intero processo di bruciare le parti dell'animale sacrificale destinate agli dei era di natura semiotica (cfr. ἐμπύρων φλόγα, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=7BC22CBF3FEA5DD988B240B4F83563AB?doc=Eur.+Supp.+155&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0121">E. Supp. 155</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Eur.+Hel.+745&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0099">Hel. 746</ref>).</p>
                    <p>Nella descrizione letteraria del sacrificio rifiutato → nell'<ref corresp="trag_08_antigone.html">Antigone di Sofocle</ref> (1005-1020) il fuoco non brucia come dovrebbe e la bile schizza da tutte le parti. Tiresia descrive questi sacrifici come ἄσημα (1113), cioè privi di segni, e su questa base conclude che gli dei non hanno accettato (οὐ δέχονται, 1119) i sacrifici. 
                        Il segno dell'accettazione del sacrificio poteva quindi essere semplicemente il suo corso standard, ininterrotto (questo è probabilmente anche il senso del verbo κ. in <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0311:book=2:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsas%2Ce%29kallie%2Frei">Plu. Domande. Conv. 2.1</ref>; cfr. τὰ ἱερὰ μὴ γίγνεσθαι τὰ νομιζόμενα, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0019%3Aspeech%3D5%3Asection%3D82">Antiph. 5,82</ref>).</p>
                    <p>Un metodo molto meglio attestato per comunicare con gli dei era quello di osservare come si comportava l'osso trasversale con la sua coda (l'insieme era indicato come ὀσφύς) quando veniva bruciato sull'altare. Sappiamo dalle rappresentazioni iconografiche e dal riferimento nella → <ref corresp="com_02_pax.html">Pace di Aristofane</ref> (1054-5) che la coda (κέρκος) doveva piegarsi verso l'alto come segno dell'accettazione favorevole degli dei del dono sacrificale (Van Straten 1966, Van Straten 1995: 118-134, Ekroth 2009). 
                        Durante le ricostruzioni effettuate oggi, furono bruciate diverse decine di porzioni sacrificali e ogni volta la coda si comportava allo stesso modo, significando l'accettazione del sacrificio da parte degli dei (code di bue: Jameson 1966; code di maiale: Ekroth 2009: 143; code di agnello: Morton 2015). Così, sembra che solo eccezionalmente gli dei abbiano segnalato il loro rifiuto del sacrificio in questo modo.</p>
                    <p>L'ultimo metodo relativamente noto di divinazione sacrificale che aveva a che fare con l'ottenimento di informazioni sull'accettazione dei sacrifici da parte degli dei è l'ispezione delle viscere dell'animale sacrificale (ieroscopia; vedi Collins 2008; Furley, Gysembergh 2015; scholia in <ref corresp="https://archive.org/stream/scholiagraecaina00dbuoft#page/152/mode/2up">Ar. Vesp.</ref> 831). Organi interni non sviluppati o lesioni visibili potevano essere interpretati come un segno di rifiuto del sacrificio da parte degli dei 
                        (por. <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=E52058895AC32903FD45D73D9CD2996A?doc=Aesch.+PB+493&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0009">A. Prom. 493-495</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=5562205FB9ACCE2E9DB6E874D7A4E993?doc=Xen.+Anab.+2.1.9&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0201">X. An. 2.1.9</ref> e <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=5562205FB9ACCE2E9DB6E874D7A4E993?doc=Xen.+Anab.+2.2.3&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0201">2.2.3</ref>; ), 
                        Tuttavia, in molti casi in cui le fonti menzionano esplicitamente atti di ieroposizione, il risultato non è la conoscenza dell'accettazione o del rifiuto delle vittime (pace Naiden 2013: 341-342), ma la rivelazione (φαίνειν, φαίνεσθαι) di qualche minaccia che fino ad allora era rimasta nascosta (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=18EC2AC64C20D929DDC5DFDB9E63E3DA?doc=Xen.+Anab.+5.6&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0201">X. An. 5.6</ref>.16-29: le vittime sono accettate, ma l'indovino vede il trucco; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=18EC2AC64C20D929DDC5DFDB9E63E3DA?doc=Xen.+Anab.+7.8&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0201">An. 7.8</ref>.1-5 e <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=3:chapter=3&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantes">Hel. 3.3</ref>.4: ieroscopia e kallierh servono due scopi diversi; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Xen.+Hell.+4.7.&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0205">Hel. 4.7</ref>.7: l'offerta fu fatta con l'intenzione di costruire il muro, ma come risultato dello ierofante, fu presa la decisione di lasciare il campo; E. El. 826-829). 
                        Vivere nel I secolo d.C. Onasandro (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0634:chapter=10&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">10</ref>.25-28) credeva addirittura che offrire sacrifici prima di prendere una decisione e la iero-scopia avessero scopi diversi: i sacrifici dovrebbero essere offerti per conoscere il momento giusto per agire, mentre la iero-scopia permette di conoscere i movimenti dei corpi celesti che influenzano gli eventi sulla terra. Questa visione potrebbe non essere molto rappresentativa delle epoche precedenti.</p>
                    <p>Sembra che non tutti i sacrifici venivano offerti con l'intenzione di ottenere informazioni sulla loro accettazione o rifiuto da parte degli dei. Ciò è indicato dall'uso del verbo κ. nel "Sistema di Atene" attribuito ad Aristotele (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0045:chapter=54&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai%2Ckallierou%3Dsi">Ath. 54</ref>; 
                        cfr. anche <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Aristoph.+Pl.+1181&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0039">Ar. Pl. 1181</ref>): κληροῖ δὲ καὶ ἱεροποιοὺς δέκα (...) οἳ τά τε μαντευτὰ ἱερὰ θύουσιν, κἄν τι καλλιερῆσαι δέῃ, καλλιεροῦσι μετὰ τῶν μάντεων 
                        ("Venivano scelti anche dieci ieropoi che offrivano sacrifici commissionati dall'oracolo, e se si doveva offrire qualcosa ottenendo segni di favore, essi offrivano in compagnia degli indovini"; cfr. sacrifici raccomandati dagli oracoli citati da Demostene, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0073:speech=21:section=53&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">21.53</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0077:speech=43:section=66&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">43.66</ref> - in entrambi i casi l'oracolo richiedeva che i sacrifici fossero accettati dagli dei; altrimenti il testo del "Sistema di Atene" era compreso da 
                        Phocius, s.v. Ἱεροποιοί; vedi anche il commento di Rhodes, 1981: 605-606). La presenza di manteis ai sacrifici suggerisce che l'acquisizione dei segni doveva avvenire per ieroposizione.</p>
                    <p>Sembra quindi che nelle fonti si trovano tracce di due pratiche di divinazione interconnesse, il cui denominatore comune era l'ispezione delle viscere dell'animale ucciso. 
                        La prima è la capacità di leggere informazioni sull'accettazione o il rifiuto di un sacrificio da parte degli dei (attraverso l'osservazione degli olocausti e l'ispezione delle interiora, cfr. <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=7BC22CBF3FEA5DD988B240B4F83563AB?doc=Eur.+Supp.+155&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0121">E. Supp. 155</ref>). Non sembra richiedere alcuna conoscenza tecnica particolare: 
                        Onasandro afferma esplicitamente che l'interpretazione dei segni durante i sacrifici può essere appresa molto rapidamente (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0634:chapter=10&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Onas. 10</ref>.25; cfr. ἐμὲ οὐκ ἄπειρον ὄντα διὰ τὸ ἀεὶ παρεῖναι τοῖς ἱεροῖς, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=18EC2AC64C20D929DDC5DFDB9E63E3DA?doc=Xen.+Anab.+5.6.29&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0201">X. An. 5.6.29</ref>). La seconda abilità riguarda l'ottenimento di informazioni supplementari, non previste nel "modulo di richiesta" iniziale, per mezzo della geroscopia. Così, l'indovino, specialista in iero-scope tecniche, poteva affermare di essere uno specialista dei sacrifici in generale. 
                        Infatti, nella scena de La stanza di Aristofane già citata, la natura esclusiva della competenza degli indovini è messa in discussione dal coro e da Trigaios (1026-1030). Allo stesso tempo, sappiamo dai resoconti degli storici che i mantei erano tenuti in grande considerazione e molto apprezzati per le loro abilità, soprattutto in guerra. Forse non dovremmo dare particolare importanza a questa contraddizione e trattarla come una manifestazione della tensione esistente tra specialisti religiosi e non specialisti, nota anche da altre epoche e ambienti culturali - era nell'interesse degli specialisti convincere tutti della loro inalienabilità, che a volte veniva minata.</p>
                    <p>Sacrificio bruciato contro καλλιερεῖν</p>
                    <p>I greci acquisivano i segni dell'accettazione dei sacrifici da parte degli dei durante le offerte bruciate, durante le quali non si bruciavano osfidi agli dei o si praticava la ieroscopia? Un argomento a favore di questa tesi è un passus dell'Anabasi in cui si legge di Senofonte che ἐθύετο καὶ ὡλοκαύτει χοίρους τῷ πατρίῳ νόμῳ, καὶ ἐκαλλιέρει (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=18EC2AC64C20D929DDC5DFDB9E63E3DA?doc=Xen.+Anab.+7.8&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0201">An. 7.8</ref>.4-5). 
                        Che θύεσθαι e ὁλοκαυτεῖν non si riferiscano a due diversi sacrifici (pace Ekroth 2002: 224) è supportato dall'espressione analoga che troviamo nel → <ref corresp="plato_02_critias.html">Kritias di Platone</ref>: θύσαντες καθαγίζοιεν πάντα τοῦ ταύρου τὰ μέλη (120a). In entrambi i casi θύω denota l'atto stesso di uccidere un animale per una divinità, e il segmento successivo indica la forma che il sacrificio prese - un'offerta bruciata.</p>
                    <p>Con la derivazione dei segni dall'olocausto abbiamo a che fare anche nella descrizione dell'autoimmolazione dell'indù Kalanos (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0129%3Achapter%3D69%3Asection%3D4">Plu. Alex. 69,4</ref>). 
                        È difficile determinare fino a che punto questa scena fittizia di autoimmolazione di un non greco sia stata modellata sul reale corso dell'olocausto greco degli animali. Il fatto è che la descrizione di Plutarco inizia come quella di un sacrificio animale greco, tranne che il sacrificatore è anche il sacrificato: Kalanos si spruzza d'acqua e getta un ciuffo di capelli nel fuoco (κατασπείσας ἑαυτοῦ καὶ τῶν τριχῶν ἀπαρξάμενος, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0129%3Achapter%3D69%3Asection%3D3">Alex. 69,3</ref>). I segni favorevoli che Kalanos ha ottenuto sono dovuti al fatto che non si è mosso quando le fiamme hanno inghiottito il suo corpo. Forse dovremmo pensare che anche durante gli olocausti di animali si osservava il comportamento di una carcassa digerita dal fuoco - se non le succedeva niente di strano, significava che il sacrificio era gradito agli dei.</p>           
                </div>
                <div type="textpart" n="Catalogo_delle_apparizioni">
                    <head>Catalogo delle apparizioni</head>
                    <p>V-IV secolo a.C.</p>
                    <p><ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=6:chapter=76&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free">Hdt. 6.76</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=6:chapter=82&amp;highlight=kalliereume%2Fnw%7C">6.82</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=7:chapter=113&amp;highlight=e%29kalliere%2Fonto">7.113</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=7:chapter=134&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">7.134</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=7:chapter=167&amp;highlight=e%29kalliere%2Feto">7.167</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=9:chapter=19&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free%2Ckallierhsa%2Fntwn">9.19</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=9:chapter=38&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free">9.38</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=9:chapter=93&amp;highlight=e%29kalliere%2Fonto">9.93</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=9:chapter=96&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frhse">9.96</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0143:speech=14:section=60&amp;highlight=kallierhsa%2Fmenoi">Isoc. 14 60</ref>; 
                        Pl.Com. fr. 51 Kassel-Austin (= <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Ath.+15.19&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0405">Ath. 15.19</ref>); 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Aristoph.+Pl.+1181&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0039">Ar. Pl. 1181</ref>;
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0165:book=7:section=791a&amp;highlight=kallierou%3Dntes">Pl. Lg. 7.791a</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0201:book=5:chapter=4&amp;highlight=e%29kallierh%2Fsanto">X. An. 5.4</ref>.22, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0201:book=7:chapter=1&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frei">7.1</ref>.40, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0201:book=7:chapter=8&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frei">7.8</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0203:book=1:chapter=5&amp;highlight=kallierhsa%2Fmenos">Cyr. 1.5</ref>.6, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0203:book=6:chapter=4&amp;highlight=e%29kekallierh%2Fkei">6.4</ref>.12, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=3:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kekallierhkw%2Fs%2Ce%29kallierei%3Dto">Hel. 3.1</ref>.17, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=3:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kekallierhkw%2Fs%2Ce%29kallierei%3Dto">3.1</ref>.19, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=3:chapter=3&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantes">3.3</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=4:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kallierhsa%2Fmenos">4.1</ref>.22, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=6:chapter=5&amp;highlight=e%29kekallie%2Frhto">6.5</ref>.17, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0209:text=Cav.:chapter=3&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsei">Eq. Mag. 3</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0209:text=Const.%20Lac.:chapter=12&amp;highlight=kekallierhko%2Ftes">Lac. 12</ref>.7, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0209:text=Const.%20Lac.:chapter=13&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsh%7C%2Ckallierhqh%3D%7C">13</ref>.2-3, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0209:text=Ways:chapter=6&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantas">Vect.6</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0001:speech=3:section=131&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">Aeschin. 3 131</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0045:chapter=54&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai%2Ckallierou%3Dsi">Arist. Ath. 54</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0073:speech=21:section=53&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">D. 21 53</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0077:speech=43:section=66&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">43 66</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0067:exordium=54:section=1&amp;highlight=e%29kallierou%3Dmen">Prooem. 54.1</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0405:book=8:chapter=67&amp;highlight=kallierhqh%3D%7C">Men. apud Ath. 8.67</ref>;</p>
                    <p>III-I secolo a.C.</p>
                    <p><ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0228:text=Id.:poem=5&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">Theoc. 5.148</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0233:book=3:chapter=11&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsas">Plb. 3.11</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0233:book=32:chapter=15&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsas">32.15</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0540:book=1:chapter=70&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantos">D.S. 1.70</ref>.9, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0540:book=4:chapter=24&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantes">4.24</ref>.4, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0540:book=4:chapter=27&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">4.27</ref>.3, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0083:book=14:chapter=80&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">14.80</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0197:book=8:chapter=7&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Str. 8.7</ref>;</p>
                    <p>I-II secolo d.C.</p>
                    <p><ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0145:book=8:section=108&amp;highlight=kallierou%3Dntes">J. AJ 8.108</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0145:book=9:section=268&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">9.268</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0145:book=9:section=271&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frhsan">9.271</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0145:book=10:section=64&amp;highlight=kallierou%3Dntes">10.64</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0145:book=12:section=146&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">12.146</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0147:book=7:section=155&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantes">BJ 7.155</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0080:chapter=17&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frei">Plu. Aem. 17</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0182:chapter=17&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frei">Arist. 17</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0076:chapter=13&amp;highlight=kallierhsa%2Fmenos">Demetr. 13</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0086:chapter=18&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsasin">Cam. 18</ref>.4, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0209:section=4&amp;highlight=kallierou%3Dntas">Quaes. Rom. 4</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0278:section=3&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frhsen">An Viti. 3</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0311:book=2:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsas%2Ce%29kallie%2Frei">Quaes. Conv. 2.1</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0634:chapter=10&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Onas. 10</ref>.27; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0231:book=2:chapter=16&amp;highlight=kallieroume%2Fnou">App. BC 2.16</ref>.116; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0427:section=11&amp;highlight=e%29kallierh%2Fsate">Lucianus, Demon. 11</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0513:text=1:section=1&amp;highlight=kekallie%2Frhtai">Sat. 1.1</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0159:book=9:chapter=13&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Paus. 9.13</ref>;</p>
                    <p>III-IV secolo d.C.</p>
                    <p><ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0633:chapter=3&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Clem.Al., Protr. 3</ref>.42.2., <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0633:chapter=3&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">3</ref>.42.8; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0665:book=2:chapter=12&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">Ach.Tat. 2.12</ref>; <ref corresp="http://stephanus.tlg.uci.edu/Iris/demo/browser.jsp#doc=tlg&amp;aid=2022&amp;wid=060&amp;q=&amp;q=GREGORIUS%20NAZIANZENUS&amp;st=143246&amp;pp=start&amp;l=20">Greg.Naz. C. 726.13</ref>.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
            
            <div type="edition" xml:lang="en">
                <div type="textpart">
                    <p>καλλιερέω kalliereo, v. abs.: to procure signs of acceptance of the sacrifice by the gods while making it. trans.: to make an offering [acc.] accepted by the gods, pleasing to the gods.</p>                    
                </div>
                <div type="textpart" n="Etymology_and_morphology">
                    <head>Etymology and morphology</head>
                    <p>A compound verb, formed from the expression καλὰ ἱερά, 'beautiful offerings, scil. offerings pleasing to the gods' (Beekes 2010: 625). The form kalli- instead of kali- is frequent in the compound, although it has not received a satisfactory explanation (Chantraine 1968: 486, Beekes 2010: 627).</p>
                    <p>Trace attested are two derivations from the verb κ.: καλλιέρησις, 'to acquire a sign of acceptance of sacrifices' (IG I2.98.23, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0634:chapter=10&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Onas. 10</ref>.26), and καλλιέρημα, "a sacrifice accepted by the gods" (Hsch. s.v. καλλιέρημα, EM. 487.14).</p>                    
                </div>
                <div type="textpart" n="Certificates">
                    <head>Certificates</head>
                    <p>Significance and usage</p>
                    <p>In absolute usage (without complements) the meaning of the verb κ. is synonymous with the expression καλὰ τὰ ἱερὰ εἶναι / γίγνεσθαι (see interchangeable usage in 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0001:speech=3:section=131&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">Aeschin. 3 131</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0067:exordium=54:section=1&amp;highlight=e%29kallierou%3Dmen">D. Prooem. 54.1</ref>). 
                        Thus, he does not describe the act of offering the sacrifice (θύω), but sums it up by indicating that it was accepted by the gods (δέχομαι, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0311:book=2:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsas%2Ce%29kallie%2Frei">Plu. Quaes. Conv. 632d</ref>).
                        In (rarer) transitive usage, the verb κ. denotes the offering of a sacrifice (expressed by a proximal complement) and indicates that the sacrifice was accepted by the gods (or that it was offered with that intention; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0073:speech=21:section=53&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">D. 21.53</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0228:text=Id.:poem=5&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">Theoc. 5.148</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0129%3Achapter%3D69%3Asection%3D4">Plu. Alex. 69.4</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0278:section=3&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frhsen">An Viti. 3</ref>; Greg.Naz. C. 726.13). 
                        The best attested method for finding out whether the gods accepted the sacrifice was to inspect the entrails of the sacrificed animal (cf. <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0083:book=14:chapter=80&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">D.S. 14.80</ref>).</p>
                    <p>The verb κ. may occur with the preposition ὑπέρ, indicating the group or undertaking for whose intention(s) the sacrifice is made (hυπὲρ τε͂ς ἀποικίας, IG I3 46 (http://epigraphy.packhum.org/text/46?hs=417-425).9; ὑπὲρ τοῦ δήμου, <ref corresp="http://epigraphy.packhum.org/text/3226">IG II2 1006</ref>.26; 
                        ὑπὲρ τῆς (...) εὐδ[ο]ξίας τε καὶ σ[ω]τηρίας, IG II2 1224 (http://epigraphy.packhum.org /text/3439?hs=2853-2860). 13-14; ὑπὲρ τῆς ἡγεμονίας, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0278:section=3&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frhsen">Plu. An Viti. 3</ref>).</p>
                    <p>On inscriptions commemorating the offering of sacrifices, the verbs κ. and θύω may be used side by side in reference to a single sacrifice, which serves to emphasize that the sacrifice was not only offered but also that it was pleasing to the gods, which must have been important from the point of view of the offering community (θύοντες καὶ καλλιεροῦντες, 
                        <ref corresp="http://epigraphy.packhum.org/text/3226">IG II2 1006</ref>.26; similarly IG II2 1008, IG II2 1028, IG II2 1029, IG II2 1030, IG II2 1039, IG II2 1043, IG II2 1224 and others; cf. also <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0233:book=32:chapter=15&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsas">Plb. 32.15</ref>).</p>
                    <p>When καλλιερεῖν?</p>
                    <p>The ascription of a semiotic character to the sacrifice translated into its use in decision-making (see Flower's general remarks on divination, 2008: 74-76, Park 1963). 
                        Most often, the sacrifice was offered to see if the gods would give their consent or promise their support in the undertaking whose undertaking the sacrifice was accompanying (marching of troops, starting a battle, founding a colony, private initiative, etc.). Acceptance of the sacrifice meant consent/support, rejection of the sacrifice meant lack of consent/support (cf <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=6:chapter=76&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free">Hdt. 6.76</ref>).</p>
                    <p>Most of the testimony concerning the interpretation of sacrifices comes from descriptions of warfare (see Sloth 2012), and we can see from them that making sacrifices at the time was a compromise between the need to make decisions and the knowledge that in an undertaking as risky as war, one must know that one has the gods on one's side (ἀνάγκη καλλιερεῖν, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0634:chapter=10&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Onas. 10</ref>.27). Commanders made sacrifices because they wanted to know if the moment was right to roll up camp, cross a river or attack enemy positions 
                        (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=6:chapter=76&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free">Hdt. 6.76</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=9:chapter=19&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free%2Ckallierhsa%2Fntwn">9.19</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=9:chapter=38&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free">9.38</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0201:book=5:chapter=4&amp;highlight=e%29kallierh%2Fsanto">X. An. 5.4</ref>.22, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0203:book=6:chapter=4&amp;highlight=e%29kekallierh%2Fkei">Cyr. 6.4</ref>.12, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=6:chapter=5&amp;highlight=e%29kekallie%2Frhto">Hel. 6.5</ref>.17; neglect of procedure: <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0001:speech=3:section=131&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">Aeschin. 3.131</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0086:chapter=18&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsasin">Plu. Cam. 18</ref>.4). If casualties were unsuccessful, plans were changed (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=6:chapter=76&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free">Hdt. 6.76</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0083:book=14:chapter=80&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">D.S. 14.80</ref>) or another sacrifice was made the next day (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=9:chapter=93&amp;highlight=e%29kalliere%2Fonto">Hdt. 9.93</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0201:book=7:chapter=1&amp;highlight=e%29kalliere%2Frei">X. An. 7.1</ref>.40, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=3:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kekallierhkw%2Fs%2Ce%29kallierei%3Dto">Hel. 3.1</ref>.17; 
                        Non-military context: <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0209:text=Ways:chapter=6&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantas">X. Vect. 6</ref>). The ineffective sacrifice may have lasted up to several days.</p>
                    <p>Sometimes from the sources a picture emerges of a commander who had not received a sign of favour from the gods, but was determined to take the intended action. He would then kill another animal, followed by another, until the result was achieved. 
                        An example of this attitude is found in the description of the uphill struggle between the troops of Agesilaos and Pharnabazos in the Hellenics (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=4:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kallierhsa%2Fmenos">X. Hel. 4.1</ref>.22): when one of the Spartan commanders learns where the men of Pharnabazos are camped, he asks Agesilaos to assign him soldiers and allow him to organise an outing; he then offers sacrifices and only interrupts them towards evening, when he finally manages to receive a sign of favour, 
                        After which he calls the soldiers to march (cf. also: <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0203:book=1:chapter=5&amp;highlight=kallierhsa%2Fmenos">X. Cyr. 1.5</ref>.6; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0182:chapter=17&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frei">Plu. Arist. 17</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0080:chapter=17&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frei">Aem. 17</ref>; continuous sacrifice as, apparently, an attempt to turn the tide of battle: 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=7:chapter=167&amp;highlight=e%29kalliere%2Feto">Hdt. 7.167</ref>; continuous sacrifice in a non-military context: <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=3:chapter=3&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantes">X. Hel. 3.3</ref>.4). 
                        We do not know how the Greeks rationalised such behaviour for themselves, but it is likely that they saw such offerings as propitiatory and the gods' change of mind as yielding to the request (cf. Sloth 2012: 24). For Greek intellectuals, such reasoning may have been difficult to accept because it would have undermined the moral perfection of the gods. According to Onasander, the gods, by accepting the sacrifice, indicated to the commander the right moment to take a given action.
                        One should therefore not do anything without having made the sacrifice in advance, and one should repeat it on the same day (θύεσθαι δὲ τῆς αὐτῆς ἡμέρας πολλάκις) so long as the gods did not accept it, because starting an action too early (without the gods' approval) or too late (receiving approval the next day) could ruin the whole enterprise (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0634:chapter=10&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Onasander 10</ref>.27). 
                        In this way Onasander avoided the suspicion that sacrificing in war serves to gain (buy) the favor of the gods (the view that the gods can be bought with sacrifices was criticized, among other things, by Plato in the State - a dialogue. by Plato in the State, a dialogue to which Onasander was to write a commentary, see <ref corresp="http://www.stoa.org/sol-bin//search.pl?search_method=QUERY&amp;login=&amp;enlogin=&amp;searchstr=omicron,386&amp;field=adlerhw_gr&amp;db=REAL">Suda on 386</ref>).</p>
                    <p>How καλλιερεῖν?</p>
                    <p>Probably the whole process of burning the parts of the sacrificial animal intended for the gods was semiotic in nature (cf. ἐμπύρων φλόγα, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=7BC22CBF3FEA5DD988B240B4F83563AB?doc=Eur.+Supp.+155&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0121">E. Supp. 155</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Eur.+Hel.+745&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0099">Hel. 746</ref>).</p>
                    <p>In the literary description of the rejected sacrifice in → <ref corresp="trag_08_antigone.html">Sophocles' Antigone</ref> (1005-1020), the fire does not burn as it should and the bile splashes on all sides. Tiresias describes these sacrifices as ἄσημα (1113), i.e. devoid of signs, and on this basis concludes that the gods did not accept (οὐ δέχονται, 1119) the sacrifices. 
                        The sign of acceptance of the sacrifice could thus simply have been its standard, uninterrupted course (this is also probably the sense of the verb κ. in <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0311:book=2:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsas%2Ce%29kallie%2Frei">Plu. Quaes. Conv. 2.1</ref>; cf. τὰ ἱερὰ μὴ γίγνεσθαι τὰ νομιζόμενα, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0019%3Aspeech%3D5%3Asection%3D82">Antiph. 5.82</ref>).</p>
                    <p>A far better attested method of communicating with the gods was to observe how the crossbone with its tail (the whole was referred to as ὀσφύς) behaved when burned on the altar. We know from iconographic representations and the reference in → <ref corresp="com_02_pax.html">Aristophanes' Peace</ref> (1054-5) that the tail (κέρκος) was supposed to bend upwards as a sign of the gods' favourable acceptance of the sacrificial gift (Van Straten 1966, Van Straten 1995: 118-134, Ekroth 2009). 
                        During reconstructions carried out today, several dozen sacrificial portions were burnt and each time the tail behaved in the same way, signifying the gods' acceptance of the sacrifice (oxtails: Jameson 1966; pig tails: Ekroth 2009: 143; lamb tails: Morton 2015). It seems, therefore, that only exceptionally did the gods signal their rejection of sacrifice in this way.</p>
                    <p>The last relatively well-known method of sacrificial divination that had to do with obtaining information about the acceptance of sacrifices by the gods is the inspection of the entrails of the sacrificial animal (hieroscopy; see Collins 2008; Furley, Gysembergh 2015; scholia in <ref corresp="https://archive.org/stream/scholiagraecaina00dbuoft#page/152/mode/2up">Ar. Vesp.</ref> 831). Undeveloped internal organs or visible lesions could have been interpreted as a sign of rejection of the sacrifice by the gods 
                        (por. <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=E52058895AC32903FD45D73D9CD2996A?doc=Aesch.+PB+493&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0009">A. Prom. 493-495</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=5562205FB9ACCE2E9DB6E874D7A4E993?doc=Xen.+Anab.+2.1.9&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0201">X. An. 2.1.9</ref> and <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=5562205FB9ACCE2E9DB6E874D7A4E993?doc=Xen.+Anab.+2.2.3&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0201">2.2.3</ref>; ), 
                        However, in many cases where the sources mention acts of hieroposition explicitly, the result is not the knowledge of acceptance or rejection of the victims (pace Naiden 2013: 341-342), but the disclosure (φαίνειν, φαίνεσθαι) of some threat that had hitherto remained hidden (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=18EC2AC64C20D929DDC5DFDB9E63E3DA?doc=Xen.+Anab.+5.6&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0201">X. An. 5.6</ref>.16-29: the victims are accepted, but the soothsayer sees the ruse; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=18EC2AC64C20D929DDC5DFDB9E63E3DA?doc=Xen.+Anab.+7.8&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0201">An. 7.8</ref>.1-5 and <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=3:chapter=3&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantes">Hel. 3.3</ref>.4: hieroscopy and kallierh serve two different purposes; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Xen.+Hell.+4.7.&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0205">Hel. 4.7</ref>.7: the offering was made with the intention of building the wall, but as a result of the hierophant, the decision was made to leave the camp; E. El. 826-829). 
                        Living in the 1st century AD. Onasander (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0634:chapter=10&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">10</ref>.25-28) even believed that offering sacrifices before making a decision and hiero-scopy had different purposes: sacrifices should be offered to know the right moment to act, while hiero-scopy allows one to know the movements of the heavenly bodies that influence events on earth. This view may not be very representative of earlier eras.</p>
                    <p>It seems that not every sacrifice was made with the intention of obtaining information about its acceptance or rejection by the gods. This is indicated by the use of the verb κ. in the "System of Athens" attributed to Aristotle (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0045:chapter=54&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai%2Ckallierou%3Dsi">Ath. 54</ref>; 
                        cf. also <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Aristoph.+Pl.+1181&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0039">Ar. Pl. 1181</ref>): κληροῖ δὲ καὶ ἱεροποιοὺς δέκα (...) οἳ τά τε μαντευτὰ ἱερὰ θύουσιν, κἄν τι καλλιερῆσαι δέῃ, καλλιεροῦσι μετὰ τῶν μάντεων 
                        ("Ten hieropoi were also chosen, who offered sacrifices commissioned by the oracle, and if something had to be offered by obtaining signs of favour, they offered in company with the soothsayers"; cf. sacrifices recommended by oracles cited by Demosthenes, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0073:speech=21:section=53&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">21.53</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0077:speech=43:section=66&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">43.66</ref> - in both cases the oracle required that the sacrifices be accepted by the gods; otherwise the text of the "System of Athens" was understood by 
                        Phocius, s.v. Ἱεροποιοί; see also Rhodes' commentary, 1981: 605-606). The presence of manteis at the sacrifices suggests that the acquisition of signs was to be by hieroposition.</p>
                    <p>So it seems that in the sources we come across traces of two interlocking divination practices, whose common denominator was the inspection of the entrails of the slain animal. 
                        The first is the ability to read information about the acceptance or rejection of a sacrifice by the gods (through observation of burnt offerings and inspection of the entrails, cf. <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=7BC22CBF3FEA5DD988B240B4F83563AB?doc=Eur.+Supp.+155&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0121">E. Supp. 155</ref>). It does not seem to require any particular technical knowledge: 
                        Onasander explicitly states that the interpretation of signs during sacrifices can be learned very quickly (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0634:chapter=10&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Onas. 10</ref>.25; cf. ἐμὲ οὐκ ἄπειρον ὄντα διὰ τὸ ἀεὶ παρεῖναι τοῖς ἱεροῖς, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=18EC2AC64C20D929DDC5DFDB9E63E3DA?doc=Xen.+Anab.+5.6.29&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0201">X. An. 5.6.29</ref>). The second skill relates to obtaining additional information, not provided for in the initial "enquiry form", by means of hieroscopy. Thus, the soothsayer, a specialist in technical hiero-scopy, could claim to be a specialist in sacrifices in general. 
                        Indeed, in the scene from Aristophanes' The Room already referred to, the exclusive nature of the soothsayers' competence is challenged by the chorus and Trigaios (1026-1030). At the same time, we know from the accounts of historians that the manteis were held in high esteem and highly regarded for their skills, especially in war. Perhaps we should not attach particular importance to this contradiction and treat it as a manifestation of the tension existing between religious specialists and non-specialists, also known from other eras and cultural circles - it was in the interest of specialists to convince everyone of their inalienability, which was sometimes undermined.</p>
                    <p>Burnt sacrifice versus καλλιερεῖν</p>
                    <p>Were the Greeks acquiring signs of the gods' acceptance of sacrifices during burnt offerings, during which no osphys were burned to the gods or hieroscopia was practiced? One argument for this thesis is a passus from the Anabasis in which we read of Xenophon that ἐθύετο καὶ ὡλοκαύτει χοίρους τῷ πατρίῳ νόμῳ, καὶ ἐκαλλιέρει (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=18EC2AC64C20D929DDC5DFDB9E63E3DA?doc=Xen.+Anab.+7.8&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0201">An. 7.8</ref>.4-5). 
                        That θύεσθαι and ὁλοκαυτεῖν do not refer to two different sacrifices (pace Ekroth 2002: 224) is supported by the analogous expression we find in → <ref corresp="plato_02_critias.html">Plato's Kritias</ref>: θύσαντες καθαγίζοιεν πάντα τοῦ ταύρου τὰ μέλη (120a). In both cases θύω denotes the very act of killing an animal for a deity, and the next segment indicates the form the sacrifice took - a burnt offering.</p>
                    <p>With the derivation of signs from the burnt offering we also have to do in the description of the self-immolation of the Hindu Kalanos (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0129%3Achapter%3D69%3Asection%3D4">Plu. Alex. 69.4</ref>). 
                        It is difficult to determine to what extent this fictional scene of self-immolation of a non-Greek was modelled on the actual course of the Greek holocaust from animals. The fact is that Plutarch's description begins like that of a Greek animal sacrifice, except that the sacrificer is also the sacrificed: Kalanos sprays himself with water and throws a tuft of his hair into the fire (κατασπείσας ἑαυτοῦ καὶ τῶν τριχῶν ἀπαρξάμενος, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0129%3Achapter%3D69%3Asection%3D3">Alex. 69.3</ref>). The favourable signs Kalanos obtained were because he did not move when the flames engulfed his body. Perhaps we should think that also during animal holocausts the behaviour of a carcass digested by fire was observed - if nothing unusual happened to it, it meant that the sacrifice was pleasing to the gods.</p>                 
                </div> 
                <div type="textpart" n="Catalogue_of_appearances">
                    <head>Catalogue of appearances</head>
                    <p>V-IV century BC</p>
                    <p><ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=6:chapter=76&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free">Hdt. 6.76</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=6:chapter=82&amp;highlight=kalliereume%2Fnw%7C">6.82</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=7:chapter=113&amp;highlight=e%29kalliere%2Fonto">7.113</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=7:chapter=134&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">7.134</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=7:chapter=167&amp;highlight=e%29kalliere%2Feto">7.167</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=9:chapter=19&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free%2Ckallierhsa%2Fntwn">9.19</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=9:chapter=38&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free">9.38</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=9:chapter=93&amp;highlight=e%29kalliere%2Fonto">9.93</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=9:chapter=96&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frhse">9.96</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0143:speech=14:section=60&amp;highlight=kallierhsa%2Fmenoi">Isoc. 14 60</ref>; 
                        Pl.Com. fr. 51 Kassel-Austin (= <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Ath.+15.19&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0405">Ath. 15.19</ref>); 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Aristoph.+Pl.+1181&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0039">Ar. Pl. 1181</ref>;
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0165:book=7:section=791a&amp;highlight=kallierou%3Dntes">Pl. Lg. 7.791a</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0201:book=5:chapter=4&amp;highlight=e%29kallierh%2Fsanto">X. An. 5.4</ref>.22, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0201:book=7:chapter=1&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frei">7.1</ref>.40, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0201:book=7:chapter=8&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frei">7.8</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0203:book=1:chapter=5&amp;highlight=kallierhsa%2Fmenos">Cyr. 1.5</ref>.6, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0203:book=6:chapter=4&amp;highlight=e%29kekallierh%2Fkei">6.4</ref>.12, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=3:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kekallierhkw%2Fs%2Ce%29kallierei%3Dto">Hel. 3.1</ref>.17, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=3:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kekallierhkw%2Fs%2Ce%29kallierei%3Dto">3.1</ref>.19, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=3:chapter=3&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantes">3.3</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=4:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kallierhsa%2Fmenos">4.1</ref>.22, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=6:chapter=5&amp;highlight=e%29kekallie%2Frhto">6.5</ref>.17, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0209:text=Cav.:chapter=3&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsei">Eq. Mag. 3</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0209:text=Const.%20Lac.:chapter=12&amp;highlight=kekallierhko%2Ftes">Lac. 12</ref>.7, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0209:text=Const.%20Lac.:chapter=13&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsh%7C%2Ckallierhqh%3D%7C">13</ref>.2-3, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0209:text=Ways:chapter=6&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantas">Vect.6</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0001:speech=3:section=131&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">Aeschin. 3 131</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0045:chapter=54&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai%2Ckallierou%3Dsi">Arist. Ath. 54</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0073:speech=21:section=53&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">D. 21 53</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0077:speech=43:section=66&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">43 66</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0067:exordium=54:section=1&amp;highlight=e%29kallierou%3Dmen">Prooem. 54.1</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0405:book=8:chapter=67&amp;highlight=kallierhqh%3D%7C">Men. apud Ath. 8.67</ref>;</p>
                    <p>III-I century BC</p>
                    <p><ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0228:text=Id.:poem=5&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">Theoc. 5.148</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0233:book=3:chapter=11&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsas">Plb. 3.11</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0233:book=32:chapter=15&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsas">32.15</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0540:book=1:chapter=70&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantos">D.S. 1.70</ref>.9, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0540:book=4:chapter=24&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantes">4.24</ref>.4, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0540:book=4:chapter=27&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">4.27</ref>.3, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0083:book=14:chapter=80&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">14.80</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0197:book=8:chapter=7&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Str. 8.7</ref>;</p>
                    <p>I-II century AD</p>
                    <p><ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0145:book=8:section=108&amp;highlight=kallierou%3Dntes">J. AJ 8.108</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0145:book=9:section=268&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">9.268</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0145:book=9:section=271&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frhsan">9.271</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0145:book=10:section=64&amp;highlight=kallierou%3Dntes">10.64</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0145:book=12:section=146&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">12.146</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0147:book=7:section=155&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantes">BJ 7.155</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0080:chapter=17&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frei">Plu. Aem. 17</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0182:chapter=17&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frei">Arist. 17</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0076:chapter=13&amp;highlight=kallierhsa%2Fmenos">Demetr. 13</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0086:chapter=18&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsasin">Cam. 18</ref>.4, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0209:section=4&amp;highlight=kallierou%3Dntas">Quaes. Rom. 4</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0278:section=3&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frhsen">An Viti. 3</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0311:book=2:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsas%2Ce%29kallie%2Frei">Quaes. Conv. 2.1</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0634:chapter=10&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Onas. 10</ref>.27; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0231:book=2:chapter=16&amp;highlight=kallieroume%2Fnou">App. BC 2.16</ref>.116; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0427:section=11&amp;highlight=e%29kallierh%2Fsate">Lucianus, Demon. 11</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0513:text=1:section=1&amp;highlight=kekallie%2Frhtai">Sat. 1.1</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0159:book=9:chapter=13&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Paus. 9.13</ref>;</p>
                    <p>III-IV century AD</p>
                    <p><ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0633:chapter=3&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Clem.Al., Protr. 3</ref>.42.2., <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0633:chapter=3&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">3</ref>.42.8; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0665:book=2:chapter=12&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">Ach.Tat. 2.12</ref>; <ref corresp="http://stephanus.tlg.uci.edu/Iris/demo/browser.jsp#doc=tlg&amp;aid=2022&amp;wid=060&amp;q=&amp;q=GREGORIUS%20NAZIANZENUS&amp;st=143246&amp;pp=start&amp;l=20">Greg.Naz. C. 726.13</ref>.</p>
                </div>
            </div>
            
            <div type="edition" xml:lang="pl">
                <div type="textpart">
                    <p>καλλιερέω kalliereo, v. abs.: pozyskiwać znaki przyjęcia ofiary przez bogów podczas jej składania. trans.: składać ofiarę [acc.] przyjętą przez bogów, miłą bogom.</p>                    
                </div>
                <div type="textpart" n="Etymologia_i_morfologia">
                    <head>Etymologia i morfologia</head>
                    <p>Czasownik złożony, utworzony na bazie wyrażenia καλὰ ἱερά, „piękne ofiary, scil. ofiary miłe bogom” (Beekes 2010: 625). Forma kalli- zamiast kali- jest częsta w złożeniach, chociaż nie doczekała się satysfakcjonującego wyjaśnienia (Chantraine 1968: 486, Beekes 2010: 627).</p>
                    <p>Śladowo poświadczone są dwa derywaty od czasownika κ.: καλλιέρησις, „pozyskanie znaku akceptacji ofiar” (IG I2.98.23, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0634:chapter=10&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Onas. 10</ref>.26), oraz καλλιέρημα, „ofiara zaakceptowana przez bogów” (Hsch. s.v. καλλιέρημα, EM. 487.14).</p>                    
                </div>
                <div type="textpart" n="Poświadczenia">
                    <head>Poświadczenia</head>
                    <p>Znaczenie i użycie</p>
                    <p>W użyciu absolutnym (bez dopełnień) znaczenie czasownika κ. jest synonimiczne względem wyrażenia καλὰ τὰ ἱερὰ εἶναι / γίγνεσθαι (zob. użycie zamienne w 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0001:speech=3:section=131&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">Aeschin. 3 131</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0067:exordium=54:section=1&amp;highlight=e%29kallierou%3Dmen">D. Prooem. 54.1</ref>). 
                        Nie opisuje więc czynności składania ofiary (θύω), lecz podsumowuje jej przebieg, wskazując, że została ona przez bogów zaakceptowana (δέχομαι, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0311:book=2:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsas%2Ce%29kallie%2Frei">Plu. Quaes. Conv. 632d</ref>).
                        W (rzadszym) użyciu tranzytywnym czasownik κ. oznacza składanie ofiary (wyrażonej przez dopełnienie bliższe) oraz wskazuje, że ofiara została zaakceptowana przez bogów (lub że była składana z taką intencją; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0073:speech=21:section=53&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">D. 21.53</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0228:text=Id.:poem=5&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">Theoc. 5.148</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0129%3Achapter%3D69%3Asection%3D4">Plu. Alex. 69.4</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0278:section=3&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frhsen">An Viti. 3</ref>; Greg.Naz. C. 726.13). 
                        Najlepiej poświadczoną metodą, która służyła przekonaniu się, czy bogowie zaakceptowali ofiarę, była inspekcja wnętrzności ofiarowanego zwierzęcia (por. <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0083:book=14:chapter=80&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">D.S. 14.80</ref>).</p>
                    <p>Czasownik κ. może wystąpić z przyimkiem ὑπέρ, wskazującym na grupę lub przedsięwzięcie, w intencji której/ego składana jest ofiara (hυπὲρ τε͂ς ἀποικίας, IG I3 46 (http://epigraphy.packhum.org/text/46?hs=417-425).9; ὑπὲρ τοῦ δήμου, <ref corresp="http://epigraphy.packhum.org/text/3226">IG II2 1006</ref>.26; 
                        ὑπὲρ τῆς (...) εὐδ[ο]ξίας τε καὶ σ[ω]τηρίας, IG II2 1224 (http://epigraphy.packhum.org /text/3439?hs=2853-2860).13-14; ὑπὲρ τῆς ἡγεμονίας, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0278:section=3&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frhsen">Plu. An Viti. 3</ref>).</p>
                    <p>Na inskrypcjach upamiętniających złożenie ofiar czasowniki κ. i θύω mogą zostać użyte obok siebie w odniesieniu do jednej ofiary, co służy podkreśleniu, że ofiara nie tylko została złożona, ale również, że była miła bogom, co musiało być istotne z punktu widzenia ofiarującej wspólnoty (θύοντες καὶ καλλιεροῦντες, 
                        <ref corresp="http://epigraphy.packhum.org/text/3226">IG II2 1006</ref>.26; podobnie IG II2 1008, IG II2 1028, IG II2 1029, IG II2 1030, IG II2 1039, IG II2 1043, IG II2 1224 i inne; por. też <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0233:book=32:chapter=15&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsas">Plb. 32.15</ref>).</p>
                    <p>Kiedy καλλιερεῖν?</p>
                    <p>Przypisanie ofierze charakteru semiotycznego przełożyło się na jej zastosowanie w procesie podejmowania decyzji (zob. ogólne uwagi Flowera na temat dywinacji, 2008: 74-76, Park 1963). 
                        Najczęściej składano ją, aby przekonać się, czy bogowie wyrażają zgodę lub obiecują wsparcie w przedsięwzięciu, którego podjęciu towarzyszyła ofiara (wymarsz wojsk, rozpoczęcie bitwy, zakładanie kolonii, inicjatywa prywatna, itp.). Przyjęcie ofiary oznaczało zgodę/wsparcie, odrzucenie ofiary – brak zgody/wsparcia (por <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=6:chapter=76&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free">Hdt. 6.76</ref>).</p>
                    <p>Większość świadectw dotyczących interpretacji ofiar pochodzi z opisów działań wojennych (zob. Sloth 2012) i widzimy z nich, że ich składanie było wówczas kompromisem między koniecznością podejmowania decyzji a świadomością, że w przedsięwzięciu tak ryzykownym, jak wojna, trzeba wiedzieć, że ma się bogów po swojej stronie (ἀνάγκη καλλιερεῖν, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0634:chapter=10&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Onas. 10</ref>.27). Dowódcy składali ofiary, ponieważ chcieli wiedzieć, czy dany moment jest odpowiedni, by zwinąć obóz, przekroczyć rzekę lub zaatakować pozycje nieprzyjaciela 
                        (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=6:chapter=76&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free">Hdt. 6.76</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=9:chapter=19&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free%2Ckallierhsa%2Fntwn">9.19</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=9:chapter=38&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free">9.38</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0201:book=5:chapter=4&amp;highlight=e%29kallierh%2Fsanto">X. An. 5.4</ref>.22, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0203:book=6:chapter=4&amp;highlight=e%29kekallierh%2Fkei">Cyr. 6.4</ref>.12, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=6:chapter=5&amp;highlight=e%29kekallie%2Frhto">Hel. 6.5</ref>.17; zaniedbanie procedury: <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0001:speech=3:section=131&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">Aeschin. 3.131</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0086:chapter=18&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsasin">Plu. Cam. 18</ref>.4). Jeżeli ofiary wypadały niepomyślnie, zmieniano plany (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=6:chapter=76&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free">Hdt. 6.76</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0083:book=14:chapter=80&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">D.S. 14.80</ref>) lub następnego dnia składano kolejną ofiarę (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=9:chapter=93&amp;highlight=e%29kalliere%2Fonto">Hdt. 9.93</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0201:book=7:chapter=1&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frei">X. An. 7.1</ref>.40, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=3:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kekallierhkw%2Fs%2Ce%29kallierei%3Dto">Hel. 3.1</ref>.17; 
                        kontekst pozamilitarny: <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0209:text=Ways:chapter=6&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantas">X. Vect. 6</ref>). Bezskuteczne składanie ofiar mogło trwać nawet kilka dni.</p>
                    <p>Niekiedy ze źródeł wyłania się obraz dowódcy, który nie otrzymał od bogów znaku przychylności, ale był zdeterminowany, by podjąć zamierzone działanie. Wówczas zabijał on kolejne zwierzę, a po nim kolejne, aż do skutku. 
                        Przykład takiej postawy znajdujemy w opisie walk podjazdowych między oddziałami Agezilaosa i Farnabazosa w Hellenikach (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=4:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kallierhsa%2Fmenos">X. Hel. 4.1</ref>.22): gdy jeden ze Spartańskich dowódców dowiaduje się, gdzie obozują ludzie Farnabazosa, prosi Agezilaosa, by przydzielił mu żołnierzy i pozwolił zorganizować wypad; następnie składa ofiary i przerywa je dopiero pod wieczór, kiedy w końcu udaje mu się otrzymać znak przychylności, 
                        po czym zwołuje żołnierzy do wymarszu (por też: <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0203:book=1:chapter=5&amp;highlight=kallierhsa%2Fmenos">X. Cyr. 1.5</ref>.6; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0182:chapter=17&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frei">Plu. Arist. 17</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0080:chapter=17&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frei">Aem. 17</ref>; ciągłe składanie ofiar jako, jak się zdaje, próba odwrócenia losów bitwy: 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=7:chapter=167&amp;highlight=e%29kalliere%2Feto">Hdt. 7.167</ref>; ciągłe składanie ofiar w kontekście pozamilitarnym: <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=3:chapter=3&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantes">X. Hel. 3.3</ref>.4). 
                        Nie wiemy, jak Grecy racjonalizowali sobie takie zachowanie, ale prawdopodobnie postrzegali tego rodzaju ofiary jako przebłagalne, a zmianę zdania przez bogów – jako ulegnięcie prośbie (por. Sloth 2012: 24). Dla Greckich intelektualistów takie rozumowanie mogło być trudne do przyjęcia, ponieważ podważałoby moralną doskonałość bogów. Zdaniem Onasandra bogowie akceptując ofiarę wskazywali dowódcy odpowiedni moment, by podjąć dane działanie.
                        Nie należało więc robić niczego, nie złożywszy wprzód ofiary, oraz należało ją ponawiać tego samego dnia (θύεσθαι δὲ τῆς αὐτῆς ἡμέρας πολλάκις) tak długo, aż bogowie jej nie przyjęli, ponieważ rozpoczęcie jakiegoś działania za wcześnie (bez zgody bogów) lub zbyt późno (otrzymując zgodę następnego dnia) mogło zrujnować całe przedsięwzięcie (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0634:chapter=10&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Onasander 10</ref>.27). 
                        W ten sposób Onasander uniknął podejrzenia, że składanie ofiar na wojnie służy pozyskaniu (kupieniu) przychylności bogów (pogląd, że bogów można kupić ofiarami, krytykowany był m.in. przez Platona w Państwie – dialogu, do którego Onasander miał napisać komentarz, zob. <ref corresp="http://www.stoa.org/sol-bin//search.pl?search_method=QUERY&amp;login=&amp;enlogin=&amp;searchstr=omicron,386&amp;field=adlerhw_gr&amp;db=REAL">Suda o 386</ref>).</p>
                    <p>Jak καλλιερεῖν?</p>
                    <p>Prawdopodobnie cały proces spalania przeznaczonych bogom części zwierzęcia ofiarnego miał charakter semiotyczny (por. ἐμπύρων φλόγα, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=7BC22CBF3FEA5DD988B240B4F83563AB?doc=Eur.+Supp.+155&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0121">E. Supp. 155</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Eur.+Hel.+745&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0099">Hel. 746</ref>).</p>
                    <p>W literackim opisie odrzuconej ofiary w → <ref corresp="trag_08_antigone.html">Antygonie Sofoklesa</ref> (1005-1020) ogień nie pali się jak należy i żółć pryska na wszystkie strony. Tejrezjasz określa te ofiary jako ἄσημα (1113), a więc pozbawione znaków, i na tej podstawie stwierdza, że bogowie nie przyjęli (οὐ δέχονται, 1119) ofiar. 
                        Znakiem akceptacji ofiary mógł więc być po prostu jej standardowy, niezakłócony przebieg (taki jest też prawdopodobnie sens czasownika κ. w <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0311:book=2:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsas%2Ce%29kallie%2Frei">Plu. Quaes. Conv. 2.1</ref>; por. τὰ ἱερὰ μὴ γίγνεσθαι τὰ νομιζόμενα, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0019%3Aspeech%3D5%3Asection%3D82">Antiph. 5.82</ref>).</p>
                    <p>Znacznie lepiej poświadczoną metodą komunikacji z bogami było obserwowanie, w jaki sposób zachowuje się spalana na ołtarzu kość krzyżowa z ogonem (całość określano mianem ὀσφύς). Z przedstawień ikonograficznych i wzmianki w → <ref corresp="com_02_pax.html">Pokoju Arystofanesa</ref> (1054-5) wiemy, że ogon (κέρκος) miał wygiąć się do góry na znak przychylnego przyjęcia przez bogów ofiarnego daru (Van Straten 1966, Van Straten 1995: 118-134, Ekroth 2009). 
                        Podczas przeprowadzonych współcześnie rekonstrukcji spalono kilkadziesiąt porcji ofiarnych i za każdym razem ogon zachowywał się tak samo, znamionując przyjęcie ofiary przez bogów (ogony wołowe: Jameson 1966; ogony świń: Ekroth 2009: 143; ogony jagnięce: Morton 2015). Wydaje się więc, że tylko wyjątkowo bogowie sygnalizowali w ten sposób odrzucenie ofiary.</p>
                    <p>Ostatnią stosunkowo dobrze znaną metodą dywinacji ofiarniczej, która miała związek z pozyskiwaniem informacji o zaakceptowaniu ofiar przez bogów, jest inspekcja wnętrzności zwierzęcia ofiarnego (hieroskopia; zob. Collins 2008; Furley, Gysembergh 2015; scholia in <ref corresp="https://archive.org/stream/scholiagraecaina00dbuoft#page/152/mode/2up">Ar. Vesp.</ref> 831). Niewykształcone narządy wewnętrzne lub widoczne zmiany chorobowe mogły być odczytane jako znak odrzucenia ofiary przez bogów 
                        (por. <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=E52058895AC32903FD45D73D9CD2996A?doc=Aesch.+PB+493&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0009">A. Prom. 493-495</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=5562205FB9ACCE2E9DB6E874D7A4E993?doc=Xen.+Anab.+2.1.9&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0201">X. An. 2.1.9</ref> i <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=5562205FB9ACCE2E9DB6E874D7A4E993?doc=Xen.+Anab.+2.2.3&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0201">2.2.3</ref>; ), 
                        jednak w wielu przypadkach, kiedy źródła wzmiankują akty hieroskopii wprost, ich rezultatem nie jest wiedza o zaakceptowaniu lub odrzuceniu ofiar (pace Naiden 2013: 341-342), lecz ujawnienie (φαίνειν, φαίνεσθαι) jakiegoś zagrożenia, które do tej pory pozostawało ukryte (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=18EC2AC64C20D929DDC5DFDB9E63E3DA?doc=Xen.+Anab.+5.6&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0201">X. An. 5.6</ref>.16-29: ofiary zostają zaakceptowane, ale wieszczek dostrzega podstęp; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=18EC2AC64C20D929DDC5DFDB9E63E3DA?doc=Xen.+Anab.+7.8&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0201">An. 7.8</ref>.1-5 i <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=3:chapter=3&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantes">Hel. 3.3</ref>.4: hieroskopia i kalliereza służą dwóm różnym celom; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Xen.+Hell.+4.7.&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0205">Hel. 4.7</ref>.7: ofiarę złożono w intencji budowy muru, ale w wyniku hieroskopii podjęto decyzję o opuszczeniu obozu; E. El. 826-829). 
                        Żyjący w I wieku n.e. Onasander (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0634:chapter=10&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">10</ref>.25-28) uważał wręcz, że składanie ofiar przed podjęciem decyzji oraz hieroskopia mają różne cele: ofiary należy składać, aby poznać właściwy moment działania, natomiast hieroskopia pozwala poznać ruchy ciał niebieskich, które mają wpływ na wydarzenia na ziemi. Ten pogląd może być mało reprezentatywny dla epok wcześniejszych.</p>
                    <p>Wydaje się, że nie każdą ofiarę składano z intencją pozyskania informacji o jej przyjęciu bądź odrzuceniu przez bogów. Wskazuje na to użycie czasownika κ. w „Ustroju Aten” przypisywanym Arystotelesowi (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0045:chapter=54&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai%2Ckallierou%3Dsi">Ath. 54</ref>; 
                        por. też <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Aristoph.+Pl.+1181&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0039">Ar. Pl. 1181</ref>): κληροῖ δὲ καὶ ἱεροποιοὺς δέκα (...) οἳ τά τε μαντευτὰ ἱερὰ θύουσιν, κἄν τι καλλιερῆσαι δέῃ, καλλιεροῦσι μετὰ τῶν μάντεων 
                        („Wybierano też dziesięciu hieropoioi, którzy składali ofiary zlecone przez wyrocznię, a jeżeli trzeba było coś ofiarować pozyskując znaki przychylności, ofiarowali w towarzystwie wieszczków”; por. ofiary zalecone przez wyrocznie przytoczone przez Demostenesa, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0073:speech=21:section=53&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">21.53</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0077:speech=43:section=66&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">43.66</ref> – w obu przypadkach wyrocznia wymagała, by ofiary zostały zaakceptowane przez bogów; inaczej tekst „Ustroju Aten” zrozumiał 
                        Focjusz, s.v. Ἱεροποιοί; zob. też komentarz Rhodesa, 1981: 605-606). Obecność manteis przy ofiarach sugeruje, że pozyskiwanie znaków miało się odbywać na drodze hieroskopii.</p>
                    <p>Wydaje się więc, że w źródłach natrafiamy na ślady dwóch zazębiających się praktyk dywinacyjnych, których wspólnym mianownikiem była inspekcja wnętrzności zabitego zwierzęcia. 
                        Pierwsza to umiejętność odczytywania informacji o przyjęciu bądź odrzuceniu ofiary przez bogów (poprzez obserwację palonych ofiar i inspekcję wnętrzności, por. <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=7BC22CBF3FEA5DD988B240B4F83563AB?doc=Eur.+Supp.+155&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0121">E. Supp. 155</ref>). Nie wydaje się, by wymagała ona szczególnej wiedzy technicznej: 
                        Onasander wprost stwierdza, że interpretacji znaków podczas ofiar można nauczyć się bardzo szybko (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0634:chapter=10&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Onas. 10</ref>.25; por. ἐμὲ οὐκ ἄπειρον ὄντα διὰ τὸ ἀεὶ παρεῖναι τοῖς ἱεροῖς, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=18EC2AC64C20D929DDC5DFDB9E63E3DA?doc=Xen.+Anab.+5.6.29&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0201">X. An. 5.6.29</ref>). Druga umiejętność dotyczy uzyskiwania dodatkowych informacji, nie przewidzianych w wyjściowym „formularzu zapytania”, na drodze hieroskopii. W ten sposób wieszczek, specjalista od hieroskopii technicznej, mógł pretendować do bycia specjalistą od ofiar w ogóle. 
                        W istocie, w przywołanej już scenie z Pokoju Arystofanesa ekskluzywny charakter kompetencji wieszczków zostaje podważony przez chór i Trygajosa (1026-1030). Jednocześnie z przekazów historyków wiemy, że manteis cieszyli się wielkim poważaniem i byli bardzo cenieni za swoje umiejętności, zwłaszcza na wojnie. Być może nie powinniśmy przywiązywać szczególnej wagi do tej sprzeczności i potraktować ją jako przejaw napięcia istniejącego między religijnymi specjalistami a nie-specjalistami, znany także z innych epok i kręgów kulturowych – w interesie specjalistów było przekonywać wszystkich o swej niezbywalności, co niekiedy podważano.</p>
                    <p>Ofiara całopalna a καλλιερεῖν</p>
                    <p>Czy Grecy pozyskiwali znaki akceptacji ofiar przez bogów podczas ofiar całopalnych, podczas których nie palono bogom osphys ani nie praktykowano hieroskopii? Jednym z argumentów na rzecz tej tezy jest passus z Anabazy, w którym czytamy o Ksenofoncie, że ἐθύετο καὶ ὡλοκαύτει χοίρους τῷ πατρίῳ νόμῳ, καὶ ἐκαλλιέρει (<ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=18EC2AC64C20D929DDC5DFDB9E63E3DA?doc=Xen.+Anab.+7.8&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0201">An. 7.8</ref>.4-5). 
                        Za tym, że θύεσθαι i ὁλοκαυτεῖν nie odnoszą się do dwóch różnych ofiar (pace Ekroth 2002: 224), przemawia analogiczne wyrażenie, które odnajdujemy w → <ref corresp="plato_02_critias.html">Kritiaszu Platona</ref>: θύσαντες καθαγίζοιεν πάντα τοῦ ταύρου τὰ μέλη (120a). W obu przypadkach θύω denotuje sam akt zabicia zwierzęcia dla bóstwa, a kolejny człon wskazuje na formę, jaką miała ofiara – całopalenie.</p>
                    <p>Z pozyskiwaniem znaków z ofiary całopalnej mamy również do czynienia w opisie samospalenia Hindusa Kalanosa (<ref type="lit" corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0129%3Achapter%3D69%3Asection%3D4">Plu. Alex. 69.4</ref>). 
                        Trudno określić, w jakim stopniu ta fikcyjna scena samospalenia nie-Greka wzorowana była na rzeczywistym przebiegu greckiego holokaustu ze zwierząt. Faktem jest, że opis Plutarcha rozpoczyna się jak opis greckiej ofiary zwierzęcej, tyle że ofiarnik jest jednocześnie ofiarowanym: Kalanos spryskuje się wodą i wrzuca kępkę swoich włosów w ogień (κατασπείσας ἑαυτοῦ καὶ τῶν τριχῶν ἀπαρξάμενος, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0129%3Achapter%3D69%3Asection%3D3">Alex. 69.3</ref>). Przychylne znaki Kalanos uzyskał, ponieważ nie poruszał się, kiedy płomienie objęły jego ciało. Być może powinniśmy sądzić, że również podczas holokaustów ze zwierząt obserwowano zachowanie się trawionego przez ogień truchła – jeżeli nie działo się z nim nic niecodziennego, znaczyło to, że ofiara była miła bogom.</p>                    
                </div>
                <div type="textpart" n="Katalog_wystąpień">
                    <head>Katalog wystąpień</head>
                    <p>V-IV wiek p.n.e.</p>
                    <p><ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=6:chapter=76&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free">Hdt. 6.76</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=6:chapter=82&amp;highlight=kalliereume%2Fnw%7C">6.82</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=7:chapter=113&amp;highlight=e%29kalliere%2Fonto">7.113</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=7:chapter=134&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">7.134</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=7:chapter=167&amp;highlight=e%29kalliere%2Feto">7.167</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=9:chapter=19&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free%2Ckallierhsa%2Fntwn">9.19</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=9:chapter=38&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Free">9.38</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=9:chapter=93&amp;highlight=e%29kalliere%2Fonto">9.93</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0125:book=9:chapter=96&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frhse">9.96</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0143:speech=14:section=60&amp;highlight=kallierhsa%2Fmenoi">Isoc. 14 60</ref>; 
                        Pl.Com. fr. 51 Kassel-Austin (= <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Ath.+15.19&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0405">Ath. 15.19</ref>); 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Aristoph.+Pl.+1181&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0039">Ar. Pl. 1181</ref>;
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0165:book=7:section=791a&amp;highlight=kallierou%3Dntes">Pl. Lg. 7.791a</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0201:book=5:chapter=4&amp;highlight=e%29kallierh%2Fsanto">X. An. 5.4</ref>.22, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0201:book=7:chapter=1&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frei">7.1</ref>.40, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0201:book=7:chapter=8&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frei">7.8</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0203:book=1:chapter=5&amp;highlight=kallierhsa%2Fmenos">Cyr. 1.5</ref>.6, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0203:book=6:chapter=4&amp;highlight=e%29kekallierh%2Fkei">6.4</ref>.12, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=3:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kekallierhkw%2Fs%2Ce%29kallierei%3Dto">Hel. 3.1</ref>.17, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=3:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kekallierhkw%2Fs%2Ce%29kallierei%3Dto">3.1</ref>.19, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=3:chapter=3&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantes">3.3</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=4:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kallierhsa%2Fmenos">4.1</ref>.22, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0205:book=6:chapter=5&amp;highlight=e%29kekallie%2Frhto">6.5</ref>.17, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0209:text=Cav.:chapter=3&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsei">Eq. Mag. 3</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0209:text=Const.%20Lac.:chapter=12&amp;highlight=kekallierhko%2Ftes">Lac. 12</ref>.7, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0209:text=Const.%20Lac.:chapter=13&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsh%7C%2Ckallierhqh%3D%7C">13</ref>.2-3, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0209:text=Ways:chapter=6&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantas">Vect.6</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0001:speech=3:section=131&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">Aeschin. 3 131</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0045:chapter=54&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai%2Ckallierou%3Dsi">Arist. Ath. 54</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0073:speech=21:section=53&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">D. 21 53</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0077:speech=43:section=66&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">43 66</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0067:exordium=54:section=1&amp;highlight=e%29kallierou%3Dmen">Prooem. 54.1</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0405:book=8:chapter=67&amp;highlight=kallierhqh%3D%7C">Men. apud Ath. 8.67</ref>;</p>
                    <p>III-I wiek p.n.e.</p>
                    <p><ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0228:text=Id.:poem=5&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">Theoc. 5.148</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0233:book=3:chapter=11&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsas">Plb. 3.11</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0233:book=32:chapter=15&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsas">32.15</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0540:book=1:chapter=70&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantos">D.S. 1.70</ref>.9, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0540:book=4:chapter=24&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantes">4.24</ref>.4, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0540:book=4:chapter=27&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">4.27</ref>.3, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0083:book=14:chapter=80&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">14.80</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0197:book=8:chapter=7&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Str. 8.7</ref>;</p>
                    <p>I-II wiek n.e.</p>
                    <p><ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0145:book=8:section=108&amp;highlight=kallierou%3Dntes">J. AJ 8.108</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0145:book=9:section=268&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">9.268</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0145:book=9:section=271&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frhsan">9.271</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0145:book=10:section=64&amp;highlight=kallierou%3Dntes">10.64</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0145:book=12:section=146&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">12.146</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0147:book=7:section=155&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsantes">BJ 7.155</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0080:chapter=17&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frei">Plu. Aem. 17</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0182:chapter=17&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frei">Arist. 17</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0076:chapter=13&amp;highlight=kallierhsa%2Fmenos">Demetr. 13</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0086:chapter=18&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsasin">Cam. 18</ref>.4, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0209:section=4&amp;highlight=kallierou%3Dntas">Quaes. Rom. 4</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0278:section=3&amp;highlight=e%29kallie%2Frhsen">An Viti. 3</ref>, 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0311:book=2:chapter=1&amp;highlight=kallierh%2Fsas%2Ce%29kallie%2Frei">Quaes. Conv. 2.1</ref>; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0634:chapter=10&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Onas. 10</ref>.27; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0231:book=2:chapter=16&amp;highlight=kallieroume%2Fnou">App. BC 2.16</ref>.116; <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0427:section=11&amp;highlight=e%29kallierh%2Fsate">Lucianus, Demon. 11</ref>, <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0513:text=1:section=1&amp;highlight=kekallie%2Frhtai">Sat. 1.1</ref>; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0159:book=9:chapter=13&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Paus. 9.13</ref>;</p>
                    <p>III-IV wiek n.e.</p>
                    <p><ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0633:chapter=3&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">Clem.Al., Protr. 3</ref>.42.2., <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0633:chapter=3&amp;highlight=kallierei%3Dn">3</ref>.42.8; 
                        <ref corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0665:book=2:chapter=12&amp;highlight=kallierh%3Dsai">Ach.Tat. 2.12</ref>; <ref corresp="http://stephanus.tlg.uci.edu/Iris/demo/browser.jsp#doc=tlg&amp;aid=2022&amp;wid=060&amp;q=&amp;q=GREGORIUS%20NAZIANZENUS&amp;st=143246&amp;pp=start&amp;l=20">Greg.Naz. C. 726.13</ref>.</p>
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