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            <titleStmt>
                <title xml:lang="grc">Hebraios</title>
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                    <ref target="https://site.unibo.it/lares/">LARES
                        Project</ref>
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                <date when="2023" />
                <idno type="filename">lexicon_Hebraios</idno>
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                <p>Born digital document.</p>
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            <div type="edition" xml:lang="en">
                <div type="textpart" n="morphology">
                    <head>Morphology</head>
                    <p>
                    <w lemma="Ἑβραῖος">Ἑβραῖος</w> -α -ον adj. Hebrew, lat.
                    <w lemma="Hebraeus">Hebraeus</w> -a -um</p>
                    <p>Ἑβραϊκός -ή -όν adj. Hebrew, lat. Hebraecus -a -um</p>
                </div>
                <div type="textpart" n="etymology">

                    <head>Etymology</head>
                    <p>The Hebrew noun עִבְרִי‎ (ʿiḇrī́) originally refers to the area west of
                        Euphrates and its people as an opposite to the Canaanites, i.e. the
                        Israelites, which is the name these people usually applied to themselves.
                        Gesenius explains that “Hebrew” is used when speaking of nations or
                        foreigners, while “Israelite” is the insider’s name for the same people (<ref
                            corresp="https://www.tyndalearchive.com/TABS/Gesenius/index.htm">Gesenius</ref> 1846, p. 604).</p>

                    <p> The Greek word Ἑβραῖος is loaned from the Hebrew עִבְרִי‎ (ʿiḇrī́) or the
                        Aramaic עִבְרַי‎ (ʿiḇray), appearing since Hellenistic times. The more
                        common use of Aramaic before Alexander’s conquest and also the /ai/ element
                        of the Aramaic word support that the loan was made from Aramaic. However,
                        the Hebrew and Aramaic words are very close to each other. In Greek, there
                        is
                        also an κ-variant Ἑβραϊκός. The Latin Hebraeus is loaned from Greek and used
                        only after classical times, like the c-variant Hebraecus. There is also a
                        rare verb, Ἑβραΐζω and an adverb Ἑβραϊστί, Lat. Hebraice, which refer to the
                        Hebrew language. </p>
                </div>
            </div>

            <div type="edition" xml:lang="en">
            <div type="textpart" n="testimonies">
                <head>Testimonies</head>
                    <p>Being derived from a region and a language, originally
                the term may have referred to knowing Hebrew, but hardly in Antiquity, when it seems
                to have meant “Jew” or “Jewish”, like <ref
                        corresp="lexicon_Ioudaios">Ἰουδαῖος</ref> (Solin 1983, 650—651), also having
                a geographical meaning (Noy, Sorek 2007, 6). Notably, during Antiquity the use and
                knowledge of Hebrew was low, yet the term Ἑβραῖος being used fairly often. As for
                the geographical meaning, Hebrew was never an official name of a region or a
                province, <placeName
                        key="Judah">Judah</placeName> or Judaea, later <placeName
                        key="Palestine">Palaestina</placeName>, being used instead.</p>

                <p><emph rend="italics">Inscriptions</emph></p>
                    <p>In inscriptions the term is used to describe synagogues, seats,
                people and titles. In the inscription <ref type="ins">IJudO I Ach 47</ref> from <placeName
                        key="Corinth">Corinth</placeName>, late 3rd cent. CE, the whole text reads: <ref
                        type="ins">συναγωηὴ Ἑβραίων</ref>. Here it seems that the term ”Hebrews” is
                used to make difference between Jews amongst themselves (IJudO I, p. 183).
                Additionally, the term ”synagogue” was not exclusively Jewish, and hence the
                attribute Jewish or Hebrew (Ἰουδαῖος or Ἑβραῖος) might be used to distinguish Jewish
                synagogues from the gentile ones (Solin 1989, 234). In <placeName
                        key="Golgoi">Golgoi</placeName>, <placeName key="Cyprus">Cyprus</placeName>,
                a synagogue is descibed as <ref type="ins">τῆς Ἑβραïκῆς</ref> (<ref
                        type="ins">IJudO IIICyp 3</ref>, 4. cent. CE) using the κ-variant in
                feminine, which might refer to the Hebrew community as a whole, as the Hebrew Jewry.
                Usually the κ-variants are used of things, but in the case of Ἰουδαῖος it could be
                interpreted as ”Jewry”, the collective of people being understood as a thing. The
                Hebrew synagogue is mentioned also in <placeName
                        key="Rome">Rome</placeName>: the father of the deceased was <ref
                        type="ins">πατρὸς συναγωγῆς Αἱβρέων </ref>(<ref type="ins">JIWE II 578</ref>,
                unknown provenance, 3.—4. cent. CE).</p>
                    <p>In the odeion of <placeName key="Afrodisias">Afrodisias</placeName>, 
                        <placeName key="Caria">Caria</placeName>, there were two seats for Hebrews:
                        <ref type="ins"> τόπος Ἑβρέων </ref>(<ref type="ins">IJudO II
                15</ref>, 5th –6th century CE) and <ref type="ins">τόπος Βενέτων Ἑβρήων
                τῶν παλειῶν</ref> (<ref type="ins">IJudO II 16</ref>, 5th –6th
                century CE). Here the term Ἑβραῖος might refer to the religion as a whole without
                subdividing Jews, for no Ἰουδαῖος is mentioned in the area.</p>
                    <p> In <placeName
                        key="Cilicia">Cilicia</placeName>, Asia Minor, there is a grave where the
                deceased Moses is <ref type="ins">ἑβρε͂ος</ref> (<ref type="ins">IJudO
                        II 240</ref>, date unclear, but probably before 4th cent. CE), whereas all
                the other people buried are described as Ἰουδαῖος. This could indicate subdivision
                amongst Jews, be the defining factor origin, language or religious orientation. Also
                in <placeName key="Sardis">Sardis</placeName>, there are lots of Jewish inscriptions
                and in only one a person is mentioned to be a Hebrew (<ref
                        type="ins">IJudO II 54</ref>, 4. cent. CE). In these cases, most of the
                Jewish population seems to have been Ἰουδαῖοι, the Ἑβραῖοι being a minority group
                instead of all Jews in general. In Seleukeia (<placeName
                        key="Seleukeia pros Kalykadno">Seleukeia pros Kalykadno</placeName>,
                Cilicia), the adjective Ἰουδαῖος is not common in inscriptions, but there was a
                shared burial of <ref type="ins">ἑβρέων</ref> (<ref type="ins">IJudO
                        II 244</ref>, before 4th cent. CE). In this case it remains very unclear
                whether the Hebrews were all the Jews or only some of them. Similarily, in addition
                to the Hebrew synagogue mentioned above, in <placeName key="Rome">
                        Rome</placeName> a title of one deceased is <ref type="ins">ἐξάρχων τῶν
                Ἑβρέων</ref> (<ref type="ins">JIWE II 2</ref>, 3—4th cent. CE, <placeName
                        key="Monteverde">Monteverde</placeName>) and another burial has a dating
                with <ref type="ins">ἄρχ(οντος) Ἑβρέων </ref>(<ref type="ins">JIWE II
                        33</ref>, 3—4th cent. CE, <placeName key="Monteverde">Monteverde</placeName>).
                In <placeName key="Naples">Naples</placeName>, three deceased are described as
                ebreus:<ref type="ins"> Numerius ebreus</ref> (<ref type="ins">JIWE I 33</ref>, 5th
                cent. CE),<ref type="ins"> Criscentia filia Pascasi
                        ebrea virgo</ref> (<ref type="ins">JIWE I 35</ref>, 5th cent. CE) and <ref
                        type="ins">hic positus est Flaes ebreus</ref> (<ref type="ins">JIWE
                        I 37</ref>, 4—5th cent. CE). In these Napolitan epitaphs there is also
                Aramaic or Hebrew, which supports the language related meaning of the term. In
                Macedonia, there is a <ref type="ins">τάφος Θεοδοςίου Ἑβρέου </ref>(tomb of
                Theodosius the Hebrew) (<ref type="ins">IJudO I Mac 8</ref>, <placeName
                        key="Beroea">Beroea</placeName>, <placeName key="Macedonia">Macedonia</placeName>,
                4th cent. CE or later), with a menora. In the epitaph <ref type="ins">IJudO
                        I Mac 9</ref> (<placeName
                        key="Beroea">Beroea</placeName>, <placeName key="Macedonia">Macedonia</placeName>,
                first half of 4th cent. CE), the term is used a bit differently, of hymns: <ref
                        type="ins">[προ]φερέστατος ὕμνοις Ἑβρέων Γέρας ἐνθάδε κῖτε</ref> (… most
                renowed in hymns of the Hebrews, Gera [or Geras or an old man] lies here).</p>
                    <p>From
                the epigraphic material it can be seen that the term is related to
                    Judaism, the Hebrews having been Jews, but the exact meaning remains
                    unclear. Possibly, the meaning might have changed in time and place, like
                    the titles used by different Jewish communities. There is no hard evidence
                    for the geographical meaning of the term in inscriptions, but this
                    possibility cannot be ignored, the evidence for any meaning remaining
                    scarce, the same applying to the meaning “Hebrew speaker”.</p>

                    <p><emph rend="italics">Papyri</emph></p>
                    <p>In
                Papyri, Ἰουδαῖος is the usual word for a Jew, the adjective Hebrew being only used
                rarely. In a contract concerning wine (<ref type="pap">CPJ III 512</ref> , <placeName
                        key="Fayum">Fayûm</placeName>, 6th—7th cent. CE) one of the parties is
                Abraham, a Hebrew from the city of Arsinoe: <ref type="pap">
                        Ἀβρααμίῳ Ἑβρείῳ -- απὸ [τῆ]ς Ἀρσινοιτῶν πόλεως</ref>. It remains unclear why
                Abraham was a Hebrew, not a Jew.</p>
                    <p>A person can also be both Jewish and Hebrew,
                although that is highly unusual. In the papyrus <ref type="pap">CPJ III
                        511</ref> (<placeName
                        key="Antinoopolis">Antinoopolis</placeName>, c. 570 CE, a lease of a
                workshop), one Peret is described as <ref type="pap">Ἑβραίου τῷ ἔθνει</ref> and <ref
                        type="pap">Ἰουδαῖος</ref>. Hebrew is Peret’s ethnos, and apparently the two
                terms are not synonymous nor do they exclude each other.</p>
                    <p>In a letter by one
                Kosmas (<ref type="pap">CPJ III 507</ref>,<placeName
                        key="Fayum"> Fayûm</placeName>, 6th cent. CE), who was imprisoned because of
                his debts, the term is used in a surprising way: <ref type="pap">ὁ
                        χρεώστης ἐφόνευςέν με θεσμ̣[ῷ̣?] Ἑβρέων</ref> (my creditor has murdered me
                in after the fashion (?) of the Hebrews). There is no sign of the writer’s nor the
                receiver’s Jewishness and it seems that the “Hebrew fashion” refers to owning money,
                not religion.</p>

                <p><emph rend="italics">Literary sources</emph></p>
                    <p><ref type="lit">1st Maccabees</ref> does
                not use the word Ἑβραῖος at all, whereas in <ref type="lit">2nd Maccabees</ref> (c.
                1. cent. BCE) it is used a few times. In <ref type="lit">11:13</ref> Lysias
                understands the might of the rebels:<ref type="lit">
                        <ref corresp="https://www.septuagint.bible/2-maccabees">ἀνικήτους εἶναι
                            τοὺς ῾Εβραίους, τοῦ πάντα δυναμένου
                            Θεοῦ συμμαχοῦντος αὐτοῖς</ref>
                    </ref> (<ref
                        corresp="https://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/2-Maccabees-Chapter-1/">
                        KJV</ref>: the Hebrews could not be overcome, because the Almighty God
                helped them). Here the rebels are “Hebrews”, and their <persName
                        type="divine" key="God"> god</persName> is mentioned. The use is surprising
                for usually the rebels are called <w lemma="Ἰουδαῖος"> Ἰουδαῖοι</w>. Lysias is a
                foreigner and thus the purpose could be to contrast nations, but that is unusual in
                the work. For example, in <ref type="lit">11:2</ref> Lysias goes to war <ref
                        type="lit">ἐπὶ τοὺς ᾿Ιουδαίους </ref>(KJV: against the Jews). Whatever the
                reason to choose different vocabulary in this passage, Ἑβραῖος and Ἰουδαῖος seem to
                be synonymous, both meaning “Jewish”. At the end of the work, the author says:<ref
                        type="lit"> ἀπ᾿ ἐκείνων τῶν καιρῶν κρατηθείσης τῆς πόλεως ὑπὸ τῶν ῾Εβραίων</ref>
                (KJV: from that time forth the Hebrews had the city in their power) (<ref
                        type="lit">15:37</ref>). Again, the aspect of contrasting nations is
                possible. However, the same chapter describes Judas’ actions and the fall of
                Nicanor, also mentioning the god, which sounds like a religious victory, because of
                which Ἰουδαῖος as Jews would be expected. In <ref type="lit">11:5</ref> it was clear
                that Ἑβραῖος and Ἰουδαῖος mean the same people, but in this passage, it is less
                obvious. In the end, the author hardly wished to imply that the people in power in
                Jerusalem were not just Jews but some other group, Hebrews, and hence I suppose it
                is safe to assume that Ἑβραῖος and Ἰουδαῖος are the same people here as well. As
                stated, the reason for the choice of vocabulary remains highly unclear.</p>

                    <p><persName type="attested" key="Philo">Philo</persName> (c. 20 BCE – 1st
                cent. CE) uses the term rarely and mostly in reference to the language when he gives
                the Hebrew words for things. In <ref type="lit">On
                        confusion
                        of tongues</ref>, he says: <ref type="lit">Ἑβραίων μὲν γλώττῃ </ref>(in the
                language of Hebrews) (68) and <ref type="lit">Ἑβραῖοι λέγουσι</ref> (Hebrews call)
                (129) (LCL 261: Philo, On the Confusion of Tongues. On the Migration of Abraham. Who
                Is the Heir of Divine Things? On Mating with the Preliminary Studies). In <ref
                        type="lit">On Abraham</ref> the term is also found referring to one’s
                practises, i.e. in the religious meaning, when Abraham’s wife describes her
                handmaid: <ref type="lit">γένος μὲν Αἰγυπτίαν,
                        τὴν δὲ
                        προαίρεσιν Ἑβραίαν </ref>(an Egyptian by birth, but a Hebrew by her rule of
                life) (251) (LCL 289: Philo, On Abraham. On Joseph. On Moses).</p>

                    <p><persName type="attested"
                        key="Statius">Statius</persName> (c. 45 – c. 96 CE) uses the term in his <ref
                        type="lit">Silvae</ref> in a funerary context, applying the adjectival
                variant without c for things: <ref type="lit">Hebraei liquores</ref>. The
                geographical meaning seems probable; there are listed several regions. Palestine is
                mentioned separately, and the liquids are balsams (Noy, Sorek 2007, 6).</p>
                    <p><ref type="lit"><lb/>omne illic stipatum examine longo 
                <lb/>ver Arabum Cilicumque fluit floresque Sabaei 
                <lb/>Indorumque
                arsura seges praereptaque templis 
                <lb/>tura Palaestinis, simul Hebraeique
                liquores 
                <lb/>Coryciaeque comae Cinyreaque germina </ref></p>
                <p>(There close-packed in
                lengthy abundance flows the whole springtime of Arabia and Cilicia, Sabaean flowers,
                Indian harvest for the flames, incense preempted from Palestinian temples, Hebrew
                essences too, Corycian strands and Cinyrean buds) (<ref
                        corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2008.01.0499">
                Stat. Silv. 5.1.210—214</ref>, epicedion in Priscillam) (LCL 206: Statius, Silvae).</p>
                    
                    <p><persName type="attested"
                        key="Josephus">Josephus</persName> (1st cent. CE) uses the term both for the
                people and the language. For him Ἑβραῖος is the umbrella term meaning all the
                descendants of <persName type="attested" key="Abraham">Abraham</persName>, Ἰουδαῖος
                referring to <placeName key="Judah">Judah</placeName>, and Hebrews always being
                “good Jews”, even though the two are parts of the same group not strongly
                differentiated (Noy, Sorek 2007, 6). At the beginning of War, he also calls himself
                Hebrew: <ref type="lit">
                        <ref
                            corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.01.0147">Ἰώσηπος
                Ματθίου παῖς, γένει Ἑβραῖος, ἐξ
                            Ἱεροσολύμων ἱερεύς </ref>
                    </ref>(<ref
                        corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.01.0148">Joseph,
                the son of Matthias, by birth a Hebrew, a priest of <placeName key="Jerusalem">
                Jerusalem</placeName></ref>) (<ref type="lit">BJ 1.3</ref>) (LCL 203: Josephus, the
                Jewish War). </p>

                    <p> In <ref type="lit">AJ 1.5</ref> he has the κ-variant as an
                adjective attribute describing the texts: <ref type="lit">
                        <ref
                            corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=J.+AJ+1.5&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0145">μέλλει
                γὰρ περιέξειν ἅπασαν τὴν παρ᾽ ἡμῖν ἀρχαιολογίαν καὶ
                            διάταξιν τοῦ πολιτεύματος ἐκ τῶν Ἑβραϊκῶν μεθηρμηνευμένην γραμμάτων</ref>
                    </ref>
                (<ref
                        corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0146:book=1:section=5&amp;highlight=hebrew">for
                it will contain all our antiquities, and the constitution of our
                        government, as interpreted out of the Hebrew Scriptures</ref>). Here the
                language and the people of the region are both possible meanings. Similarly, in <ref
                        type="lit">AJ 9.208</ref> <ref type="lit">
                        <ref
                            corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0145%3Abook%3D9">ἐν
                ταῖς Ἑβραϊκαῖς βίβλοις</ref>
                    </ref> (<ref
                        corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D9">in
                the Hebrew books</ref>).</p>
                    
                    <p>In <ref type="lit">
                        <ref
                            corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=J.+AJ+2.9.5&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0145">AJ
                2.226</ref>
                    </ref> there is a feminine form of the adjective: <ref
                        type="lit">τῶν Ἑβραΐδων γυναικῶν </ref> (<ref
                        corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D2%3Asection%3D224 ">one
                of the Hebrew women</ref>). Here the meaning seems ethnic, for in the previous
                sentence Josephus says: <ref type="lit">τῶν ἐκ τοῦ Ἑβραίων γένους ἀπώλειαν</ref>(the
                destruction of the Hebrew nation) (<ref type="lit">2.225</ref>). In<ref
                        type="lit"> War </ref> also mentions “the nation/race of the Hebrews”: <ref
                        type="lit">τὸ γένος τῶν Ἑβραίων</ref>(BJ 5.5). </p>
                        <p>However, in<ref
                        type="lit"><ref
                            corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0145%3Abook%3D2%3Awhiston+chapter%3D9%3Awhiston+section%3D1">AJ 2.201—202</ref> he calls the Hebrews Israelites, bringing religious sense to the
                ethnic meaning: <ref type="lit">Αἰγυπτίοις τρυφεροῖς καὶ ῥᾳθύμοις πρὸς
                            πόνους οὖσι καὶ τῶν τε ἄλλων ἡδονῶν ἥττοσι καὶ δὴ καὶ τῆς κατὰ
                φιλοκέρδειαν
                            συνέβη δεινῶς πρὸς τοὺς Ἑβραίους διατεθῆναι κατὰ φθόνον τῆς
                            εὐδαιμονίας ὁρῶντες
                            γὰρ τὸ τῶν Ἰσραηλιτῶν γένος ἀκμάζον </ref></ref>(<ref
                        corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=J.+AJ+2.201&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146">Now
                it happened that the Egyptians grew
                        delicate and lazy, as to pains-taking, and gave themselves up to other
                pleasures, and in particular to the love of gain. They also became very
                        ill-affected towards the Hebrews, as touched with envy at their prosperity;
                for
                        when they saw how the nation of the Israelites flourished</ref>). </p>
                            <p>
                Josephus also uses the rare adverb ἑβραϊστὶ when the Hebrew language is used, for
                example twice in <ref type="lit">AJ 10.8</ref>. He also employs prepositional
                expressions for using the language, as: <ref type="lit">συνάγει δ᾿
                        αὐτοὺς ὁ Σαμουῆλος εἴς τινα πόλιν λεγομένην Μασφάτην·
                        κατοπτευόμενον τοῦτο σημαίνει κατὰ τὴν τῶν Ἑβραίων γλῶτταν </ref>(<ref
                        corresp=" http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=J.+AJ+6&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146">So
                Samuel gathered them together to a certain city called Mizpeh, which, in the
                        Hebrew tongue, signifies a watch-tower</ref>) (<ref type="lit">
                        <ref
                            corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0145%3Abook%3D6">AJ
                6.22</ref>
                    </ref>), <ref type="lit">κατὰ γλῶτταν τὴν
                        Ἑβραίων </ref>(in the language of Hebrews) (<ref type="lit">AJ 1.34</ref>)
                and <ref
                        type="lit">κατὰ τὴν Ἑβραίων </ref>(TAG διάλεκτος) διάλεκτον (in the dialect
                of Hebrews) (<ref type="lit">AJ 1.33</ref>). Additionally, in<ref
                        type="lit"> War</ref> Josephus employs the rare verb: <ref type="lit">καὶ
                        ὁ Ἰώσηπος -- τά τε τοῦ Καίσαρος διήγγελλεν ἑβραΐζων</ref> (LCL: Josephus --
                delivered Caesar’s message in Hebrew) (<ref type="lit">BJ 6.97</ref> ). </p>

                    <p>In
                the <ref type="lit">Gospels</ref>, <persName type="attested" key="John">John</persName> the adverb
                Ἑβραϊστί twice, referring to the Hebrew or Aramaic language: <ref
                        type="lit">Ἔστιν δὲ ἐν τοῖς Ἱεροσολύμοις ἐπὶ τῇ προβατικῇ κολυμβήθρα ἡ
                ἐπιλεγομένη Ἑβραϊστὶ Βηθζαθὰ πέντε στοὰς ἔχουσα</ref>, <ref
                        corresp="https://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/vul/joh.htm">Vulgata</ref> <ref
                        type="lit">Est autem Jerosolymis
                        probatica piscina, quæ cognominatur hebraice Bethsaida, quinque porticus
                habens</ref> (<ref corresp="https://www.esv.org/John+4/">ESV</ref> Now there is in
                Jerusalem by the Sheep Gate a pool, in Aramaic (or Hebrew) called Bethesda) (<ref
                        type="lit">Joh. 5:2</ref>) and <ref type="lit">τοῦτον οὖν τὸν τίτλον
                        πολλοὶ ἀνέγνωσαν τῶν
                        Ἰουδαίων, ὅτι ἐγγὺς ἦν ὁ τόπος τῆς πόλεως ὅπου ἐσταυρώθη ὁ Ἰησοῦς· καὶ
                        ἦν
                        γεγραμμένον Ἑβραϊστί, Ῥωμαϊστί, Ἑλληνιστί</ref>, Vulgata <ref type="lit">Hunc
                ergo titulum multi
                        Judæorum legerunt: quia prope civitatem erat locus, ubi crucifixus est
                        Jesus, et
                        erat scriptum hebraice, græce, et latine </ref>(ESV: Many of the Jews read
                this inscription, for the place where Jesus was crucified was near the city, and it
                was written in Aramaic, in Latin, and in Greek) (<ref type="lit">Joh.
                        19:20</ref>). The other evangelists do not use the Hebrew vocabulary at all. </p>

                    <p>
                In the 5th book of his <ref type="lit">Histories</ref>, <persName type="attested" key="Tacitus">
                Tacitus</persName> (56 – c. 120 CE) talks about the First Jewish War also describing
                the history and origins of the region and its people (see also <ref
                        corresp="lexicon_Ioudaios">Iudaeus</ref> in Tacitus). He uses hebraeus to
                describe the land: <ref type="lit">hebraeae terrae</ref>. This is notable for
                usually the term is supposed to refer to the language, even though it probably
                originates from the name of the land. It remains unclear whether Tacitus was aware
                of this etymology, but he clearly uses the word in a geographical meaning (Noy,
                Sorek 2007, 6). <ref type="lit">
                        <ref
                            corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Tac.+Hist.+5&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0079">Hist.
                5.2</ref>
                    </ref></p> 
                    <quote>Iudaeos Creta insula profugos
                    novissima Libyae insedisse
                    memorant, qua tempestate Saturnus vi Iovis pulsus cesserit regnis.
                    argumentum e
                    nomine petitur: inclutum in Creta Idam montem, accolas Idaeos aucto in
                    barbarum
                    cognomento Iudaeos vocitari. quidam regnante Iside exundantem per Aegyptum
                multitudinem ducibus Hierosolymo ac Iuda proximas in terras exoneratam; plerique
                Aethiopum prolem, quos rege Cepheo metus atque odium mutare sedis perpulerit.
                    sunt qui tradant Assyrios convenas, indigum agrorum populum, parte Aegypti
                potitos, mox proprias urbis Hebraeasque terras et propiora Syriae coluisse.
                    clara alii Iudaeorum initia, Solymos, carminibus Homeri celebratam gentem,
                conditae urbi Hierosolyma nomen e suo fecisse.</quote>
                        <p>(Some say that the Jews
                were fugitives from the island of Crete, who settled on the nearest coast of Africa
                about the time when Saturn was driven from his throne by the power of Jupiter.
                Evidence of this is sought in the name. There is a famous mountain in Crete called
                Ida; the neighbouring tribe, the Idæi, came to be called Judæi by a barbarous
                lengthening of the national name. Others assert that in the reign of Isis the
                overflowing population of Egypt, led by Hierosolymus and Judas, discharged itself
                into the neighbouring countries. Many, again, say that they were a race of Ethiopian
                origin, who in the time of king Cepheus were driven by fear and hatred of their
                neighbours to seek a new dwelling-place. Others describe them as an Assyrian horde
                who, not having sufficient territory, took possession of part of Egypt, and founded
                cities of their own in what is called the Hebrew country, lying on the borders of
                Syria. Others, again, assign a very distinguished origin to the Jews, alleging that
                they were the Solymi, a nation celebrated in the poems of Homer, who called the city
                which they founded Hierosolyma after their own name.) <ref
                        corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Tac.+Hist.+5&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0080">
                translation</ref>

                </p>
<p>In his <ref type="lit">Civil Wars</ref>,
                describing the events in the late Republic, <persName type="attested" key="Appian">Appian</persName>
                (c. 95 – c. 165 CE) lists people around the Mediterranean. Amongst them, there is<ref
                        type="lit"> τὸ Ἑβραίων γένος </ref>(the nation of Hebrews) (<ref
                        corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.01.0232">BC
                2.71</ref>) (LCL 5: Appian, Roman History. Civil Wars. <ref
                        corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.01.0231">
                Perseus</ref>). The meaning is clearly geographical. </p>
<p> Describing Greece, <persName type="attested"
                        key="Pausanias">Pausanias</persName> (2nd cent. CE) mentions the Hebrews in
                the geographical sense: <ref type="lit">καὶ ἐς μὲν πόλεμον οὐδένα ἑκούσιος κατέστη,
                Ἑβραίους δὲ τοὺς ὑπὲρ Σύρων ἐχειρώσατο ἀποστάντας</ref> (He (<persName type="attested"
                        key="Hadrian">Hadrian</persName>) never voluntarily entered upon a war, but
                he reduced the Hebrews beyond Syria, who had rebelled (<ref
                        corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.5.5&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 ">
                Perseus</ref>)) (<ref type="lit">
                        <ref
                            corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.5.5&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0159 ">Paus.
                1.5.5</ref>
                    </ref>). He calls the region “the land of Hebrews”,
                for example in 8.16.4:<ref type="lit"> ἐν τῇ Ἑβραίων</ref>. During his days the
                officially correct form of the region was Palaestina, which he uses as well (Noy,
                Sorek 2007, 6), for example <ref type="lit">ἐν τῇ <placeName
                        key="Palestine">Παλαιστίνῃ</placeName> </ref>(1.14.7). The two words also
                appear together. Speaking of oracle women, Pausanias says:<ref
                    type="lit"> ἐπετράφη δὲ καὶ ὕστερον τῆς Δημοῦς παρ᾿ Ἑβραίοις τοῖς ὑπὲρ τῆς
                Παλαιστίνης γυνὴ χρησμολόγος, ὄνομα δὲ αὐτῇ Σάββη</ref> (Later than Demo there grew
                up among the Hebrews above Palestine a woman who gave oracles and was named Sabbe (<ref
                    corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0160:book=10:chapter=12&amp;highlight=sabbe 
        ">
                Perseus</ref>)) (<ref type="lit">
                    <ref
                        corresp="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+10.12.9&amp;fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0159">
                10.12.9</ref>
                </ref>). </p>

<p>
                    <persName type="attested" key="Tertullian">Tertullian</persName> (c. 155 AD – c. 220 AD) gives
                an explanation to the relationship between Iudaeus and Hebraeus in his <ref
                        type="lit">Apologeticum</ref> <ref type="lit">Hebraei retro, qui nunc
                        Iudaei; igitur et litterae Hebraeae et
                        eloquium </ref>(Hebrews was the name formerly given to those now called
                Jews. Consequently both their literature and language are Hebrew (<ref
                        corresp="https://www.tertullian.org/articles/mayor_apologeticum/mayor_apologeticum_07translation.htm ">
                translation</ref>)) (<ref type="lit">
                        <ref corresp=" https://www.tertullian.org/latin/apologeticum_becker.htm">Tert.
                Apol. 18.6</ref>
                    </ref>). He uses the variant Hebraeus for both
                people and things. Other authors do not mention this change of terminology (Noy,
                Sorek 2007, 6) and it does not seem plausible given that both terms were in use
                since Hellenistic times, even though Ebraeus is less common than Iudaeus. Especially
                epigraphic evidence suggests the terms having been used side by side, perhaps in a
                bit different sense. Tertullian’s comment might indicate that the terminology was
                unclear even for the natives of the day, at least to outsiders of Judaism. </p>
<p><persName type="attested"
                        key="John Chrysostom">John
                        Chrysostom</persName> (c. 347 – 407 CE) discusses Christians, Jews and
                pagans in his sermon <ref type="lit">
                        <ref
                            corresp="https://greekdownloads3.files.wordpress.com/2014/08/adversus-judaeos.pdf">Adversus
                Judaeos</ref>
                    </ref> (both passages are in p. 4 of the PDF).
                Usually he calls Jews Ἰουδαῖοι, but the term Ἑβραῖος appears as well. In <ref
                        type="lit">Adv. Jud. 3.4 </ref> says: <ref type="lit">εἰς τὰ τῶν Ἑβραίων
                εἰσελθεῖν </ref>(to enter (the shrine) of the Hebrews (<ref
                        corresp="https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/chrysostom_adversus_judaeos_01_homily1.htm ">
                translation</ref>)) and in <ref type="lit">
                        3.5</ref> <ref type="lit">ἐπὶ τὰ τῶν Ἑβραίων -- συνέδρια </ref>(to the place
                where the Hebrews assembled). Here “Hebrews” seems to simply mean Jews and the term
                is only used in reference to the place. </p>
                </div>
            </div>
        
    
        
            <div type="edition" xml:lang="en">
            <div type="textpart" n="catalogue of occurrences">
                <head>Catalogue of occurrences</head>
                <p><emph rend="italics">Inscriptions</emph></p>
                <p>
                    <ref type="ins"> IJudO I Ach 47, Mac 8; 9</ref>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <ref type="ins">IJudO II 15; 16; 54; 240; 244</ref>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <ref type="ins"> IJudO III Cyp 3 </ref>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <ref type="ins"> JIWE I 33; 35; 37</ref>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <ref type="ins"> JIWE II 2; 33; 578</ref>
                </p>


                <p><emph rend="italics">Papyri</emph></p>
                <p>
                    <ref type="pap">CPJ III 507; 511; 512 </ref>
                </p>


                <p><emph rend="italics">Literary sources</emph></p>

                <p>
                    <ref type="lit">Appian BC 2.71 </ref>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <ref type="lit"> Gospel of John 5:2; 19:20 </ref>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <ref type="lit"> John Chrysostom Adv. Jud. 3.4, 5 </ref>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <ref type="lit"> Josephus AJ 1.5, 33, 34; 2.201—202, 225, 226; 6.22; 9.208;
                        10.8; BJ 1.3; 5.5; 6.97 </ref>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <ref type="lit"> 2nd Maccabees 11:2, 5, 13; 15:37 </ref>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <ref type="lit"> Pausanias 1.5.5; 1.14.7; 8.16.4; 10.12.9 </ref>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <ref type="lit"> Philo Conf. 68; 129, Abr. 251 </ref>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <ref type="lit"> Statius Silv. 5.1.210—214 </ref>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <ref type="lit"> Tacitus Hist. 5.2 </ref>
                </p>
                <p>
                    <ref type="lit"> Tertullian Apol. 18.6 </ref>
                </p>
            </div>

            </div>
            <div type="edition" xml:lang="en">
            <div type="textpart" n="discussion / interpretation">
                <head>Discussion / interpretation</head>

                <p> In Greek the term first appears during the Hellenistic era and it remains in use
                    throughout Antiquity meaning in some way “Jewish”, Ἰουδαῖος being the most
                    common designation of Jews, or in the geographical or language related meaning.
                    In Latin the term only appears after classical times, Iudaeus being used for
                    Jews since Cicero. In Byzantine era Ἑβραῖος became more common once Ἰουδαῖος has
                    got a pejorative tone (Williams 1997, 253).</p>
                <p> Be the meaning religious, ethnic or geographical, the question is, what is the
                    difference between Ἑβραῖος and Ἰουδαῖος – to what extent were the meanings
                    overlapping or excluding? In addition to the knowledge of the Hebrew language a
                    close relationship with Palestine or certain religious ideas have been
                    suggested. As Noy and Sorek point out, because of the scarcity of evidence the
                    self-designations of Jews before the 3rd century CE remains unclear (Noy, Sorek
                    2007, 6). The term was used by both Jews and others.
                </p>
            </div>
                <div type="bibliography">
                    <p><hi rend="italic">Corpora:</hi></p>
                    <p>CPJ III	“Corpus Papyrorum Judaicorum III”, eds. Victor A. Tcherikover, Alexander Fuks, Menahem Stern, David M. Lewis, Magnes Press, Hebrew University by Harvard University Press, 1964.</p>
                        <p>IJudO I	”Inscriptiones Judaicae Orientis I: Eastern Europe”, eds. D. Noy, A. Panayotov, H. Bloedhorn, Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism 101, Mohr Siebeck, 2004. </p>
                        <p>IJudO II	”Inscriptiones Judaicae Orientis II: Kleinasien”, ed. W. Ameling, Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism 99, Mohr Siebeck, 2004.</p>
                       <p> JIWE I	”Jewish inscriptions of Western Europe I: Italy (excluding the City of Rome), Spain and Gaul”, ed. D. Noy, Cambridge University Press, 1993.</p>
                       <p> JIWE II	”Jewish Inscriptions of Western Europe II: the city of Rome”, ed. D. Noy, Cambridge University Press, 1995.</p>
                        
                    <p><hi rend="italic">Studies:</hi></p>
                        <p>Gesenius 1846	“Hebrew-Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament”, Friedrich Wilhelm Gesenius, 1846.</p>
                            <p>Noy, Sorek 2007	”Claudia Aster and Curtia Euodia: Two Jewish Women in Roman Italy”, D. Noy, S. Sorek, Women in Judaism: A Multidisciplinary Journal, vol. 5, no. 1, 2007.</p>
                            <p>Solin 1983	”Juden und Syrer im westlichen Teil der römischen Welt. Eine ethnisch-demographische Studie mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der sprachlichen Zustände”, H. Solin, ANRW II.29.2, 1983.</p>
                            <p>Williams 1997	“The Meaning and Function of Ioudaios in Graeco-Roman Inscriptions”, Margaret H. Williams, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, Bd. 116 (1997), published by: Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH.</p>
</div>
                </div>
        </body>
    </text>
</TEI>